A woman buried in Mongolia in the Iron Age era

SKT004
Portrait reconstruction
Disclaimer: The portrait shown is a speculative reconstruction and not the actual face of the ancient sample. It represents an artistic interpretation based on archaeological data.
Specimen Details
Sample ID:
SKT004
Date:
200 BCE - 1 BCE
Biological Sex:
Female
mtDNA:
U2e1a1
Y-DNA:
Not applicable
Cultural Period:
Xiongnu to Late Medieval Khuvsgul, Mongolia
Location
Country:
Mongolia
Locality:
Khuvsgul. Salkhityn Am
Coordinates:
49.1623, 101.4244
Map Location
Historical Timeline
Description

The region of Khuvsgul in Mongolia, known for its stunning landscapes and cultural richness, has a deep and varied history that spans from the time of the Xiongnu confederation to the Late Medieval period. This era captures a significant transformation in the lifestyle, societal structure, and cultural practices of nomadic steppe cultures that inhabited this area.

The Xiongnu Era (3rd Century BCE - 1st Century CE)

The Xiongnu were one of the earliest known nomadic empires of the Eastern Steppes, emerging as a formidable power around the 3rd century BCE. They were a confederation of tribes who united under the leadership of their charismatic chieftains. The Xiongnu are often identified as one of the primary threats to the Han Dynasty of China, leading to the construction of the Great Wall.

Society and Culture:

  • Social Structure: The Xiongnu were organized hierarchically, with a chanyu (similar to an emperor) at the top. Below the chanyu were lords and nobles who controlled various regions.
  • Nomadic Lifestyle: The Xiongnu were pastoral nomads, relying heavily on horse-riding and herding of animals like sheep, goats, and cattle. Their mobility allowed them to conduct raids and trade across vast distances.
  • Art and Artifacts: Despite their reputation as warriors, the Xiongnu left behind a wealth of artifacts, including intricate metalwork and jewelry, illustrating a sophisticated artistic culture.
  • Religion and Beliefs: The Xiongnu practiced shamanistic rites, with a deep reverence for the sky and nature, often conducting ritual sacrifices to appease their deities.

Transition to Later Periods

The decline of the Xiongnu around the 1st century CE led to the emergence of various other nomadic groups, such as the Xianbei and Rouran, who would inherit and adapt Xiongnu customs over the subsequent centuries.

Early to High Medieval Period (6th to 14th centuries)

During the medieval period, the Khuvsgul region experienced significant cultural and political changes, influenced by successive waves of nomadic empires.

Turkic and Mongolic Influence:

  • Uighurs and Kirghiz: The Uighur Khaganate (8th-9th centuries) and later the Kirghiz shifted the power dynamics, bringing further Turkic influences to the region.
  • Mongol Empire: In the 13th century, the formation of the Mongol Empire under Genghis Khan dramatically transformed the steppes' political landscape. The empire's influence brought increased trade, communication, and cultural exchange across Eurasia.

Society and Culture:

  • Economic Activities: Trade increased significantly during the Mongol Empire, leading to an exchange of goods such as silk, spices, and other luxury items along the Silk Road routes passing near Khuvsgul.
  • Cultural Synthesis: The Mongol Empire's vastness encouraged cultural synthesis. Different ethnic groups, including Turkish, Mongolic, and Chinese influences, intermingled, enriching the local cultural tapestry.

Art, Religion, and Politics:

  • Art: The Mongol period saw artistic influences from Persian, Chinese, and Islamic cultures, manifesting in manuscripts, textiles, and ceramics.
  • Religious Shifts: While shamanism remained, Buddhism began to spread during this period, largely influenced by Mongol rulers' patronage after Kublai Khan.
  • Political Structure: The region was organized into territories ruled by various Mongol nobles, who maintained a feudal system influenced by Mongol customs and laws, such as the Yassa legal code.

Late Medieval Period (14th-16th centuries)

With the fragmentation of the Mongol Empire, the region entered a fragmented political state, with various khanates and tribes vying for control.

Society and Stability:

  • Tribal Conflicts: The power vacuum left by the empire's decline led to intermittent tribal conflicts, influencing migration patterns and settlements.
  • Continued Nomadism: Despite political changes, the nomadic way of life persisted, retaining its importance culturally and economically.

Cultural Legacy:

  • Enduring Traditions: Many of the cultural practices, such as horse riding, archery, and traditional music, characteristic of earlier eras, persisted and remain central to the identity of Mongolian culture today.
  • Language and Literature: The development of the Mongolian script during this period facilitated the growth of literature and documentation, preserving oral traditions and histories.

Overall, the timeline from the era of the Xiongnu to the late medieval Khuvsgul is marked by dynamic changes driven by migrations, empires, and trade. The confluence of different cultures and religions over the centuries has woven a rich tapestry of nomadic heritage that continues to influence modern Mongolia.

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OLN007 Early Medieval Mongolia 700 CE Arkhangai. Olon Dov, Mongolia View
OLN008 Early Medieval Mongolia 700 CE Arkhangai. Olon Dov, Mongolia View
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OLN012 Early Medieval Mongolia 700 CE Arkhangai. Olon Dov, Mongolia View
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SAN001 Xiongnu Period Dornod, Mongolia 10 CE Dornod. Sant Uul, Mongolia View
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SKT003 Xiongnu to Late Medieval Khuvsgul, Mongolia 200 BCE Khuvsgul. Salkhityn Am, Mongolia View
SKT004 Xiongnu to Late Medieval Khuvsgul, Mongolia 200 BCE Khuvsgul. Salkhityn Am, Mongolia View
SKT005 Xiongnu to Late Medieval Khuvsgul, Mongolia 200 BCE Khuvsgul. Salkhityn Am, Mongolia View
SKT006 Xiongnu to Late Medieval Khuvsgul, Mongolia 162 BCE Khuvsgul. Salkhityn Am, Mongolia View
SKT007 Xiongnu to Late Medieval Khuvsgul, Mongolia 200 BCE Khuvsgul. Salkhityn Am, Mongolia View
SKT008 Xiongnu to Late Medieval Khuvsgul, Mongolia 200 BCE Khuvsgul. Salkhityn Am, Mongolia View
SKT009 Xiongnu to Late Medieval Khuvsgul, Mongolia 200 BCE Khuvsgul. Salkhityn Am, Mongolia View
SKT010 Xiongnu to Late Medieval Khuvsgul, Mongolia 356 BCE Khuvsgul. Salkhityn Am, Mongolia View
SKT012 Xiongnu to Late Medieval Khuvsgul, Mongolia 200 BCE Khuvsgul. Salkhityn Am, Mongolia View
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TAV005 Late Medieval Xiongnu 200 BCE Sukhbaatar. Tavan Tolgoi, Mongolia View
TAV006 Late Medieval Xiongnu 200 BCE Sukhbaatar. Tavan Tolgoi, Mongolia View
TAV011 Late Medieval Xiongnu 200 BCE Sukhbaatar. Tavan Tolgoi, Mongolia View
TEV002 Xiongnu Period Uvurkhangai, Mongolia 200 BCE Uvurkhangai. Tevsh Mountain, Mongolia View
TEV003 Xiongnu Period Uvurkhangai, Mongolia 200 BCE Uvurkhangai. Tevsh Mountain, Mongolia View
TMI001 Early Medieval Xiongnu 40 BCE Arkhangai. Tamiryn Ulaan Khoshuu. Burkhan Tolgoi, Mongolia View
TSA001 Late Medieval Mongolia 1000 CE Dornod. Tsagaan Chuluut, Mongolia View
TSA002 Late Medieval Mongolia 1000 CE Dornod. Tsagaan Chuluut, Mongolia View
TSA003 Late Medieval Mongolia 1000 CE Dornod. Tsagaan Chuluut, Mongolia View
TSA004 Late Medieval Mongolia 1000 CE Dornod. Tsagaan Chuluut, Mongolia View
TSA005 Late Medieval Mongolia 1000 CE Dornod. Tsagaan Chuluut, Mongolia View
TSA006 Late Medieval Mongolia 1000 CE Dornod. Tsagaan Chuluut, Mongolia View
TSA007 Late Medieval Mongolia 1000 CE Dornod. Tsagaan Chuluut, Mongolia View
TSB001 Middle to Late Bronze Age Mongolia 660 CE Arkhangai. Tsaidam Bag. Shiveet Tolgoi, Mongolia View
TSI001 Middle to Late Bronze Age Mongolia 900 BCE Arkhangai. Tsaidam Bag. Shiveet Tolgoi, Mongolia View
TUH001 Early Medieval Xiongnu 150 BCE Arkhangai. Tamiryn Ulaan Khoshuu. Burkhan Tolgoi, Mongolia View
TUH002 Early Medieval Xiongnu 150 BCE Arkhangai. Tamiryn Ulaan Khoshuu. Burkhan Tolgoi, Mongolia View
TUK001 Early Medieval Xiongnu 250 CE Arkhangai. Tamiryn Ulaan Khoshuu. Burkhan Tolgoi, Mongolia View
TUK002 Early Medieval Xiongnu 150 BCE Arkhangai. Tamiryn Ulaan Khoshuu. Burkhan Tolgoi, Mongolia View
TUK003 Early Medieval Xiongnu 150 BCE Arkhangai. Tamiryn Ulaan Khoshuu. Burkhan Tolgoi, Mongolia View
TUM001 Early Medieval Bulgan, Mongolia 500 CE Bulgan. Shoroon Bumbagar. Türkic mausoleum, Mongolia View
UGO001 Late Medieval Mongolia 1000 CE Dornod. Ugoomor, Mongolia View
UGO002 Late Medieval Mongolia 1000 CE Dornod. Ugoomor, Mongolia View
UGU001 Medieval Xiongnu 676 CE Selenge. Uguumur Uul, Mongolia View
UGU002 Medieval Xiongnu 41 BCE Selenge. Uguumur Uul, Mongolia View
UGU003 Medieval Xiongnu 50 BCE Selenge. Uguumur Uul, Mongolia View
UGU005 Medieval Xiongnu 17 CE Selenge. Uguumur Uul, Mongolia View
UGU006 Medieval Xiongnu 50 BCE Selenge. Uguumur Uul, Mongolia View
UGU010 Medieval Xiongnu 43 BCE Selenge. Uguumur Uul, Mongolia View
UGU011 Medieval Xiongnu 50 BCE Selenge. Uguumur Uul, Mongolia View
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ULN003 Middle to Late Bronze Age to Xiongnu to Late Medieval Sukhbaatar, Mongolia 1416 BCE Sukhbaatar. Ulaanzuukh, Mongolia View
ULN004 Middle to Late Bronze Age to Xiongnu to Late Medieval Sukhbaatar, Mongolia 96 BCE Sukhbaatar. Ulaanzuukh, Mongolia View
ULN005 Middle to Late Bronze Age to Xiongnu to Late Medieval Sukhbaatar, Mongolia 1602 BCE Sukhbaatar. Ulaanzuukh, Mongolia View
ULN006 Middle to Late Bronze Age to Xiongnu to Late Medieval Sukhbaatar, Mongolia 1650 BCE Sukhbaatar. Ulaanzuukh, Mongolia View
ULN007 Middle to Late Bronze Age to Xiongnu to Late Medieval Sukhbaatar, Mongolia 1650 BCE Sukhbaatar. Ulaanzuukh, Mongolia View
ULN009 Middle to Late Bronze Age to Xiongnu to Late Medieval Sukhbaatar, Mongolia 1650 BCE Sukhbaatar. Ulaanzuukh, Mongolia View
ULN010 Middle to Late Bronze Age to Xiongnu to Late Medieval Sukhbaatar, Mongolia 1650 BCE Sukhbaatar. Ulaanzuukh, Mongolia View
ULN011 Middle to Late Bronze Age to Xiongnu to Late Medieval Sukhbaatar, Mongolia 1176 CE Sukhbaatar. Ulaanzuukh, Mongolia View
ULN015 Middle to Late Bronze Age to Xiongnu to Late Medieval Sukhbaatar, Mongolia 1445 BCE Sukhbaatar. Ulaanzuukh, Mongolia View
UUS001 Middle to Late Bronze Age to Late Medieval Khuvsgul, Mongolia 1250 CE Khuvsgul. Uushigiin Uver, Mongolia View
UUS002 Middle to Late Bronze Age to Late Medieval Khuvsgul, Mongolia 1292 CE Khuvsgul. Uushigiin Uver, Mongolia View
UVG001 Xiongnu Period Bulgan, Mongolia 200 BCE Bulgan. Ovgont, Mongolia View
YUR001 Xiongnu Period Selenge, Mongolia 52 BCE Selenge. Yuroo II, Mongolia View
ZAA001 Early to Late Medieval Mongolia 550 CE Bulgan. Zaan-Khoshuu, Mongolia View
ZAA002 Early to Late Medieval Mongolia 596 CE Bulgan. Zaan-Khoshuu, Mongolia View
ZAA003 Early to Late Medieval Mongolia 1021 CE Bulgan. Zaan-Khoshuu, Mongolia View
ZAA004 Early to Late Medieval Mongolia 550 CE Bulgan. Zaan-Khoshuu, Mongolia View
ZAA005 Early to Late Medieval Mongolia 1033 CE Bulgan. Zaan-Khoshuu, Mongolia View
ZAA007 Early to Late Medieval Mongolia 671 CE Bulgan. Zaan-Khoshuu, Mongolia View
ZAM001 Late Medieval Dundgobi, Mongolia 1000 CE Dundgobi. Zambaga Khairkhan, Mongolia View
ZAM002 Late Medieval Dundgobi, Mongolia 1000 CE Dundgobi. Zambaga Khairkhan, Mongolia View
ZAR002 Late Medieval Bulgan, Mongolia 1000 CE Bulgan. Zaraa Tolgoi, Mongolia View
ZAY001 Late Medieval Sukhbaatar, Mongolia 1000 CE Sukhbaatar. Khalgan Khoshuu. Zamyn Khashat. Khanan bor, Mongolia View
I14037 1422 BCE Sükhbaatar aimag. Tuvshinshiree sum. Bulgiin ekh. Tomb 47, Mongolia View
I13180 3012 BCE Bayan-Ulgii aimag. Ulaankhus sum. Kumdii govi barrow. burial 2, Mongolia View
I6361 2619 BCE Bayan-Ulgii aimag. Ulaankhus sum. Kurgak govi barrow 2 secondary burial, Mongolia View
I13173 1876 BCE Khovd. Munkhkhairkhan sum. Ulaan goviin uzuur barrow 2, Mongolia View
UGU002 41 BCE Selenge. Uguumur Uul, Mongolia View
I6362 1044 BCE Khovd. Bulgan sum. Khudzhirtyn gol I. kurgan 2, Mongolia View
I12957 2574 BCE Khovd. Bulgan sum. Yagshiin hodoo. Barrow 3, Mongolia View
BOR001 Early Iron Age Slab Grave Culture Khentii, Mongolia 982 BCE Bor-Bulag (Khentii Province, Binder District), Mongolia View
BUL001 Late Bronze Age Ulaanzukh 2, Mongolia 1422 BCE Bulgiin-ekh (Sükhbaatar Province, Tüvshinshiree District), Mongolia View
KUM001 Early Bronze Age Ulgii 1, Mongolia 3012 BCE Kumdii-govi (Bayan-Ölgii Province, Ulaankhus District), Mongolia View
KUR001 Early Bronze Age Ulgii 1, Mongolia 2619 BCE Kurgak govi (Bayan-Ulgii aimag, Ulaankhus sum), Mongolia View
UAA001 Middle Bronze Age Munkhkhairkhan 2, Mongolia 1876 BCE Ulaan-goviin-uzuur (Khovd Province, Mönkhkhairkhan District), Mongolia View
UGU004 Medieval Xiongnu 41 BCE Uguumur-Uul (Selenge Province, Sant District), Mongolia View
ULZ001 Late Bronze Age Center West 5, Mongolia 1044 BCE Khudzhirtyn-gol-1 (Khovd Province, Üyench District), Mongolia View
YAG001 Early Bronze Age Chemurchek Culture 2, Mongolia 2574 BCE Yagshiin-Khuduu (Khovd Province, Bulgan District), Mongolia View
Sample ID Culture/Period Date Location Action
SKT001 Xiongnu to Late Medieval Khuvsgul, Mongolia 200 BCE Khuvsgul. Salkhityn Am, Mongolia View
SKT002 Xiongnu to Late Medieval Khuvsgul, Mongolia 340 BCE Khuvsgul. Salkhityn Am, Mongolia View
SKT003 Xiongnu to Late Medieval Khuvsgul, Mongolia 200 BCE Khuvsgul. Salkhityn Am, Mongolia View
SKT004 Xiongnu to Late Medieval Khuvsgul, Mongolia 200 BCE Khuvsgul. Salkhityn Am, Mongolia View
SKT005 Xiongnu to Late Medieval Khuvsgul, Mongolia 200 BCE Khuvsgul. Salkhityn Am, Mongolia View
SKT006 Xiongnu to Late Medieval Khuvsgul, Mongolia 162 BCE Khuvsgul. Salkhityn Am, Mongolia View
SKT007 Xiongnu to Late Medieval Khuvsgul, Mongolia 200 BCE Khuvsgul. Salkhityn Am, Mongolia View
SKT008 Xiongnu to Late Medieval Khuvsgul, Mongolia 200 BCE Khuvsgul. Salkhityn Am, Mongolia View
SKT009 Xiongnu to Late Medieval Khuvsgul, Mongolia 200 BCE Khuvsgul. Salkhityn Am, Mongolia View
SKT010 Xiongnu to Late Medieval Khuvsgul, Mongolia 356 BCE Khuvsgul. Salkhityn Am, Mongolia View
SKT012 Xiongnu to Late Medieval Khuvsgul, Mongolia 200 BCE Khuvsgul. Salkhityn Am, Mongolia View
Ancient Genetic Admixture

Ancient genetic admixture analysis compares the DNA profile of this individual (SKT004) with present-day reference populations. These results show what percentage of the individual's genetic makeup resembles ancient populations from different geographic regions.

Ancient Asians 96%
Neolithic Farmers 4%
Modern Genetic Admixture

Modern genetic admixture analysis compares the DNA profile of this individual (SKT004) with present-day reference populations. These results show what percentage of the individual's genetic makeup resembles modern populations from different geographic regions.

These results complement the ancient ancestry components shown in the previous section, offering a different perspective on the individual's genetic profile by comparing it with modern reference populations rather than prehistoric ancestral groups.

Asia 99%
Northern Asian 76%
Siberian 41.6%
Mongolian 34.1%
Japanese & Korean 17%
Japanese 16.5%
Chinese & Southeast Asian 5%
Tibetan 3.9%
Chinese 0.8%
Central Asian, Northern Indian & Pakistani 2%
Central Asian 1.7%
America 1%
America 1%
Native American 0.9%
Oceania 0%
Melanesian 0%
Africa 0%
West African 0%
G25 Coordinates

The G25 coordinates for the sample SKT004 are as follows. You can analyze its admixture using G25 Studio.

SKT004,0.0412256,-0.40175422,0.09601868,-0.02490394,-0.07448036,-0.04691958,0.0220541,0.02674708,0.00997024,0.0124706,0.00377232,0.00146678,-0.00067154,-0.00044346,-0.00924514,-0.01536072,-0.00859366,0.01049204,0.0159351,0.00904736,0.01323814,-0.0182059,0.00101006,0.00089402,0.00793323
Analyze it in G25 Studio
Scientific Papers References
A Dynamic 6,000-Year Genetic History of Eurasia's Eastern Steppe
Authors:
Jeong C, Wang K, Wilkin S
Abstract:

The Eastern Eurasian Steppe was home to historic empires of nomadic pastoralists, including the Xiongnu and the Mongols. However, little is known about the region's population history. Here, we reveal its dynamic genetic history by analyzing new genome-wide data for 214 ancient individuals spanning 6,000 years. We identify a pastoralist expansion into Mongolia ca. 3000 BCE, and by the Late Bronze Age, Mongolian populations were biogeographically structured into three distinct groups, all practicing dairy pastoralism regardless of ancestry. The Xiongnu emerged from the mixing of these populations and those from surrounding regions. By comparison, the Mongols exhibit much higher eastern Eurasian ancestry, resembling present-day Mongolic-speaking populations. Our results illuminate the complex interplay between genetic, sociopolitical, and cultural changes on the Eastern Steppe.

Link:
View Publication
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