A woman buried in Mongolia in the Iron Age era

BUR004
Portrait reconstruction
Disclaimer: The portrait shown is a speculative reconstruction and not the actual face of the ancient sample. It represents an artistic interpretation based on archaeological data.
Specimen Details
Sample ID:
BUR004
Date:
40 BCE - 109 CE
Biological Sex:
Female
mtDNA:
G2a5
Y-DNA:
Not applicable
Cultural Period:
Early Medieval Xiongnu
Location
Country:
Mongolia
Locality:
Arkhangai. Tamiryn Ulaan Khoshuu. Burkhan Tolgoi
Coordinates:
47.7993, 102.3612
Map Location
Historical Timeline
Description

The Early Medieval Xiongnu of the nomadic steppe cultures, particularly in the region now known as Arkhangai, Mongolia, is a fascinating era that offers a unique glimpse into the complexities and dynamics of early nomadic life in Central Asia. This period, spanning approximately from the 3rd century BCE to the late 2nd century CE, marks the height of the Xiongnu confederation, a powerful political and military alliance that played a significant role in shaping the cultural and historical landscape of the Mongolian steppe and beyond.

Geographic and Environmental Context

The region of Arkhangai is characterized by its rugged terrain, with mountains, grasslands, and river valleys. This environment was ideal for the pastoral nomadic lifestyle of the Xiongnu, who relied heavily on livestock such as horses, sheep, and cattle. The harsh climatic conditions of the Mongolian plateau necessitated a highly adaptive and mobile way of life, where the Xiongnu thrived by moving their herds seasonally to exploit diverse ecological zones.

Social and Political Structure

The Xiongnu society was organized into a loose confederation of tribes under the leadership of a shan-yu, or chieftain, who wielded considerable authority. Power within the confederation was decentralized, with tribal leaders enjoying a degree of autonomy. However, the shan-yu held overarching control, orchestrating military campaigns and diplomatic relations. The social hierarchy was evident, with an aristocracy comprising the shan-yu’s family and close allies, while the majority of the population were herders and warriors.

Economy and Subsistence

Economically, the Xiongnu relied on a combination of herding, raiding, and trade. Their pastoral lifestyle centered around livestock, which provided food, clothing, and transportation. Trade was essential, particularly with neighboring Chinese states, offering grain, textiles, and luxury goods in exchange for horses and animal products. The Xiongnu also engaged in raiding campaigns against settled societies, supplementing their economy and asserting their dominance in the region.

Military Prowess

The Xiongnu are perhaps best known for their military capabilities, which helped them establish and maintain their influence over vast territories. Their military strength lay in their cavalry, which was unmatched in speed and maneuverability. The Xiongnu warriors were skilled horsemen and archers, employing strategies that emphasized mobility and surprise. Their military campaigns posed a constant threat to the northern borders of early Chinese states, leading to complex relationships characterized by both conflict and cooperation.

Cultural and Technological Developments

Culturally, the Xiongnu were at the crossroads of several influences due to their interactions with various neighboring civilizations. This interaction is evident in their art, which often features motifs and techniques borrowed from Chinese, Persian, and Hellenistic cultures. Despite their robust warrior tradition, the Xiongnu also practiced shamanism and ancestor worship, which played significant roles in their spiritual and social lives.

Technological advances during this period included the widespread use of composite bows, tailored for horseback warfare, and advances in metallurgy, which allowed them to produce weapons and tools that were both practical and efficient. The Xiongnu's ability to adapt and incorporate new technologies was crucial to their survival and military success.

Decline and Legacy

The decline of the Xiongnu began in the late 2nd century CE due to internal strife, changing climate conditions, and pressures from expanding Chinese dynasties. Over time, the Xiongnu confederation fragmented into smaller groups, some of which migrated westward into Europe, possibly influencing the Hunnic tribes that later challenged the Roman Empire.

Despite their eventual decline, the Xiongnu left an enduring legacy on the cultural and genetic makeup of Central Asia. Their history influenced subsequent nomadic empires, including the Mongols, who admired and emulated Xiongnu traditions. The Xiongnu era remains a testament to the resilience and adaptability of nomadic cultures in the harsh environments of the Mongolian steppe.

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JAA001 Xiongnu Period Khentii, Mongolia 200 BCE Khentii. Jargalantyn Am. Jargalantyn Khondii/Hundhii, Mongolia View
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OLN004 Early Medieval Mongolia 700 CE Arkhangai. Olon Dov, Mongolia View
OLN005 Early Medieval Mongolia 700 CE Arkhangai. Olon Dov, Mongolia View
OLN007 Early Medieval Mongolia 700 CE Arkhangai. Olon Dov, Mongolia View
OLN008 Early Medieval Mongolia 700 CE Arkhangai. Olon Dov, Mongolia View
OLN009 Early Medieval Mongolia 700 CE Arkhangai. Olon Dov, Mongolia View
OLN010 Early Medieval Mongolia 700 CE Arkhangai. Olon Dov, Mongolia View
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OLN012 Early Medieval Mongolia 700 CE Arkhangai. Olon Dov, Mongolia View
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SAN001 Xiongnu Period Dornod, Mongolia 10 CE Dornod. Sant Uul, Mongolia View
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SHA001 Late Medieval Umungobi, Mongolia 1000 CE Umungobi. Shar Tolgoi, Mongolia View
SHG001 Late Medieval Sukhbaatar, Mongolia 1000 CE Sukhbaatar. Sharga Uul, Mongolia View
SHG002 Late Medieval Sukhbaatar, Mongolia 1000 CE Sukhbaatar. Sharga Uul, Mongolia View
SHG003 Late Medieval Sukhbaatar, Mongolia 1000 CE Sukhbaatar. Sharga Uul, Mongolia View
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SKT002 Xiongnu to Late Medieval Khuvsgul, Mongolia 340 BCE Khuvsgul. Salkhityn Am, Mongolia View
SKT003 Xiongnu to Late Medieval Khuvsgul, Mongolia 200 BCE Khuvsgul. Salkhityn Am, Mongolia View
SKT004 Xiongnu to Late Medieval Khuvsgul, Mongolia 200 BCE Khuvsgul. Salkhityn Am, Mongolia View
SKT005 Xiongnu to Late Medieval Khuvsgul, Mongolia 200 BCE Khuvsgul. Salkhityn Am, Mongolia View
SKT006 Xiongnu to Late Medieval Khuvsgul, Mongolia 162 BCE Khuvsgul. Salkhityn Am, Mongolia View
SKT007 Xiongnu to Late Medieval Khuvsgul, Mongolia 200 BCE Khuvsgul. Salkhityn Am, Mongolia View
SKT008 Xiongnu to Late Medieval Khuvsgul, Mongolia 200 BCE Khuvsgul. Salkhityn Am, Mongolia View
SKT009 Xiongnu to Late Medieval Khuvsgul, Mongolia 200 BCE Khuvsgul. Salkhityn Am, Mongolia View
SKT010 Xiongnu to Late Medieval Khuvsgul, Mongolia 356 BCE Khuvsgul. Salkhityn Am, Mongolia View
SKT012 Xiongnu to Late Medieval Khuvsgul, Mongolia 200 BCE Khuvsgul. Salkhityn Am, Mongolia View
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TAV005 Late Medieval Xiongnu 200 BCE Sukhbaatar. Tavan Tolgoi, Mongolia View
TAV006 Late Medieval Xiongnu 200 BCE Sukhbaatar. Tavan Tolgoi, Mongolia View
TAV011 Late Medieval Xiongnu 200 BCE Sukhbaatar. Tavan Tolgoi, Mongolia View
TEV002 Xiongnu Period Uvurkhangai, Mongolia 200 BCE Uvurkhangai. Tevsh Mountain, Mongolia View
TEV003 Xiongnu Period Uvurkhangai, Mongolia 200 BCE Uvurkhangai. Tevsh Mountain, Mongolia View
TMI001 Early Medieval Xiongnu 40 BCE Arkhangai. Tamiryn Ulaan Khoshuu. Burkhan Tolgoi, Mongolia View
TSA001 Late Medieval Mongolia 1000 CE Dornod. Tsagaan Chuluut, Mongolia View
TSA002 Late Medieval Mongolia 1000 CE Dornod. Tsagaan Chuluut, Mongolia View
TSA003 Late Medieval Mongolia 1000 CE Dornod. Tsagaan Chuluut, Mongolia View
TSA004 Late Medieval Mongolia 1000 CE Dornod. Tsagaan Chuluut, Mongolia View
TSA005 Late Medieval Mongolia 1000 CE Dornod. Tsagaan Chuluut, Mongolia View
TSA006 Late Medieval Mongolia 1000 CE Dornod. Tsagaan Chuluut, Mongolia View
TSA007 Late Medieval Mongolia 1000 CE Dornod. Tsagaan Chuluut, Mongolia View
TSB001 Middle to Late Bronze Age Mongolia 660 CE Arkhangai. Tsaidam Bag. Shiveet Tolgoi, Mongolia View
TSI001 Middle to Late Bronze Age Mongolia 900 BCE Arkhangai. Tsaidam Bag. Shiveet Tolgoi, Mongolia View
TUH001 Early Medieval Xiongnu 150 BCE Arkhangai. Tamiryn Ulaan Khoshuu. Burkhan Tolgoi, Mongolia View
TUH002 Early Medieval Xiongnu 150 BCE Arkhangai. Tamiryn Ulaan Khoshuu. Burkhan Tolgoi, Mongolia View
TUK001 Early Medieval Xiongnu 250 CE Arkhangai. Tamiryn Ulaan Khoshuu. Burkhan Tolgoi, Mongolia View
TUK002 Early Medieval Xiongnu 150 BCE Arkhangai. Tamiryn Ulaan Khoshuu. Burkhan Tolgoi, Mongolia View
TUK003 Early Medieval Xiongnu 150 BCE Arkhangai. Tamiryn Ulaan Khoshuu. Burkhan Tolgoi, Mongolia View
TUM001 Early Medieval Bulgan, Mongolia 500 CE Bulgan. Shoroon Bumbagar. Türkic mausoleum, Mongolia View
UGO001 Late Medieval Mongolia 1000 CE Dornod. Ugoomor, Mongolia View
UGO002 Late Medieval Mongolia 1000 CE Dornod. Ugoomor, Mongolia View
UGU001 Medieval Xiongnu 676 CE Selenge. Uguumur Uul, Mongolia View
UGU002 Medieval Xiongnu 41 BCE Selenge. Uguumur Uul, Mongolia View
UGU003 Medieval Xiongnu 50 BCE Selenge. Uguumur Uul, Mongolia View
UGU005 Medieval Xiongnu 17 CE Selenge. Uguumur Uul, Mongolia View
UGU006 Medieval Xiongnu 50 BCE Selenge. Uguumur Uul, Mongolia View
UGU010 Medieval Xiongnu 43 BCE Selenge. Uguumur Uul, Mongolia View
UGU011 Medieval Xiongnu 50 BCE Selenge. Uguumur Uul, Mongolia View
ULA001 Late Medieval Bulgan, Mongolia 1035 CE Bulgan. Ulaan Kherem II, Mongolia View
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ULI002 Middle to Late Bronze Age to Early Medieval Khovd, Mongolia 651 CE Khovd. lower and middle terraces. Uliastai River, Mongolia View
ULI003 Middle to Late Bronze Age to Early Medieval Khovd, Mongolia 1203 BCE Khovd. lower and middle terraces. Uliastai River, Mongolia View
ULN001 Middle to Late Bronze Age to Xiongnu to Late Medieval Sukhbaatar, Mongolia 1392 BCE Sukhbaatar. Ulaanzuukh, Mongolia View
ULN002 Middle to Late Bronze Age to Xiongnu to Late Medieval Sukhbaatar, Mongolia 1650 BCE Sukhbaatar. Ulaanzuukh, Mongolia View
ULN003 Middle to Late Bronze Age to Xiongnu to Late Medieval Sukhbaatar, Mongolia 1416 BCE Sukhbaatar. Ulaanzuukh, Mongolia View
ULN004 Middle to Late Bronze Age to Xiongnu to Late Medieval Sukhbaatar, Mongolia 96 BCE Sukhbaatar. Ulaanzuukh, Mongolia View
ULN005 Middle to Late Bronze Age to Xiongnu to Late Medieval Sukhbaatar, Mongolia 1602 BCE Sukhbaatar. Ulaanzuukh, Mongolia View
ULN006 Middle to Late Bronze Age to Xiongnu to Late Medieval Sukhbaatar, Mongolia 1650 BCE Sukhbaatar. Ulaanzuukh, Mongolia View
ULN007 Middle to Late Bronze Age to Xiongnu to Late Medieval Sukhbaatar, Mongolia 1650 BCE Sukhbaatar. Ulaanzuukh, Mongolia View
ULN009 Middle to Late Bronze Age to Xiongnu to Late Medieval Sukhbaatar, Mongolia 1650 BCE Sukhbaatar. Ulaanzuukh, Mongolia View
ULN010 Middle to Late Bronze Age to Xiongnu to Late Medieval Sukhbaatar, Mongolia 1650 BCE Sukhbaatar. Ulaanzuukh, Mongolia View
ULN011 Middle to Late Bronze Age to Xiongnu to Late Medieval Sukhbaatar, Mongolia 1176 CE Sukhbaatar. Ulaanzuukh, Mongolia View
ULN015 Middle to Late Bronze Age to Xiongnu to Late Medieval Sukhbaatar, Mongolia 1445 BCE Sukhbaatar. Ulaanzuukh, Mongolia View
UUS001 Middle to Late Bronze Age to Late Medieval Khuvsgul, Mongolia 1250 CE Khuvsgul. Uushigiin Uver, Mongolia View
UUS002 Middle to Late Bronze Age to Late Medieval Khuvsgul, Mongolia 1292 CE Khuvsgul. Uushigiin Uver, Mongolia View
UVG001 Xiongnu Period Bulgan, Mongolia 200 BCE Bulgan. Ovgont, Mongolia View
YUR001 Xiongnu Period Selenge, Mongolia 52 BCE Selenge. Yuroo II, Mongolia View
ZAA001 Early to Late Medieval Mongolia 550 CE Bulgan. Zaan-Khoshuu, Mongolia View
ZAA002 Early to Late Medieval Mongolia 596 CE Bulgan. Zaan-Khoshuu, Mongolia View
ZAA003 Early to Late Medieval Mongolia 1021 CE Bulgan. Zaan-Khoshuu, Mongolia View
ZAA004 Early to Late Medieval Mongolia 550 CE Bulgan. Zaan-Khoshuu, Mongolia View
ZAA005 Early to Late Medieval Mongolia 1033 CE Bulgan. Zaan-Khoshuu, Mongolia View
ZAA007 Early to Late Medieval Mongolia 671 CE Bulgan. Zaan-Khoshuu, Mongolia View
ZAM001 Late Medieval Dundgobi, Mongolia 1000 CE Dundgobi. Zambaga Khairkhan, Mongolia View
ZAM002 Late Medieval Dundgobi, Mongolia 1000 CE Dundgobi. Zambaga Khairkhan, Mongolia View
ZAR002 Late Medieval Bulgan, Mongolia 1000 CE Bulgan. Zaraa Tolgoi, Mongolia View
ZAY001 Late Medieval Sukhbaatar, Mongolia 1000 CE Sukhbaatar. Khalgan Khoshuu. Zamyn Khashat. Khanan bor, Mongolia View
I14037 1422 BCE Sükhbaatar aimag. Tuvshinshiree sum. Bulgiin ekh. Tomb 47, Mongolia View
I13180 3012 BCE Bayan-Ulgii aimag. Ulaankhus sum. Kumdii govi barrow. burial 2, Mongolia View
I6361 2619 BCE Bayan-Ulgii aimag. Ulaankhus sum. Kurgak govi barrow 2 secondary burial, Mongolia View
I13173 1876 BCE Khovd. Munkhkhairkhan sum. Ulaan goviin uzuur barrow 2, Mongolia View
UGU002 41 BCE Selenge. Uguumur Uul, Mongolia View
I6362 1044 BCE Khovd. Bulgan sum. Khudzhirtyn gol I. kurgan 2, Mongolia View
I12957 2574 BCE Khovd. Bulgan sum. Yagshiin hodoo. Barrow 3, Mongolia View
BOR001 Early Iron Age Slab Grave Culture Khentii, Mongolia 982 BCE Bor-Bulag (Khentii Province, Binder District), Mongolia View
BUL001 Late Bronze Age Ulaanzukh 2, Mongolia 1422 BCE Bulgiin-ekh (Sükhbaatar Province, Tüvshinshiree District), Mongolia View
KUM001 Early Bronze Age Ulgii 1, Mongolia 3012 BCE Kumdii-govi (Bayan-Ölgii Province, Ulaankhus District), Mongolia View
KUR001 Early Bronze Age Ulgii 1, Mongolia 2619 BCE Kurgak govi (Bayan-Ulgii aimag, Ulaankhus sum), Mongolia View
UAA001 Middle Bronze Age Munkhkhairkhan 2, Mongolia 1876 BCE Ulaan-goviin-uzuur (Khovd Province, Mönkhkhairkhan District), Mongolia View
UGU004 Medieval Xiongnu 41 BCE Uguumur-Uul (Selenge Province, Sant District), Mongolia View
ULZ001 Late Bronze Age Center West 5, Mongolia 1044 BCE Khudzhirtyn-gol-1 (Khovd Province, Üyench District), Mongolia View
YAG001 Early Bronze Age Chemurchek Culture 2, Mongolia 2574 BCE Yagshiin-Khuduu (Khovd Province, Bulgan District), Mongolia View
Sample ID Culture/Period Date Location Action
BUR001 Early Medieval Xiongnu 103 BCE Arkhangai. Tamiryn Ulaan Khoshuu. Burkhan Tolgoi, Mongolia View
BUR002 Early Medieval Xiongnu 150 BCE Arkhangai. Tamiryn Ulaan Khoshuu. Burkhan Tolgoi, Mongolia View
BUR003 Early Medieval Xiongnu 150 BCE Arkhangai. Tamiryn Ulaan Khoshuu. Burkhan Tolgoi, Mongolia View
BUR004 Early Medieval Xiongnu 40 BCE Arkhangai. Tamiryn Ulaan Khoshuu. Burkhan Tolgoi, Mongolia View
TMI001 Early Medieval Xiongnu 40 BCE Arkhangai. Tamiryn Ulaan Khoshuu. Burkhan Tolgoi, Mongolia View
TUH001 Early Medieval Xiongnu 150 BCE Arkhangai. Tamiryn Ulaan Khoshuu. Burkhan Tolgoi, Mongolia View
TUH002 Early Medieval Xiongnu 150 BCE Arkhangai. Tamiryn Ulaan Khoshuu. Burkhan Tolgoi, Mongolia View
TUK001 Early Medieval Xiongnu 250 CE Arkhangai. Tamiryn Ulaan Khoshuu. Burkhan Tolgoi, Mongolia View
TUK002 Early Medieval Xiongnu 150 BCE Arkhangai. Tamiryn Ulaan Khoshuu. Burkhan Tolgoi, Mongolia View
TUK003 Early Medieval Xiongnu 150 BCE Arkhangai. Tamiryn Ulaan Khoshuu. Burkhan Tolgoi, Mongolia View
Ancient Genetic Admixture

Ancient genetic admixture analysis compares the DNA profile of this individual (BUR004) with present-day reference populations. These results show what percentage of the individual's genetic makeup resembles ancient populations from different geographic regions.

Ancient Asians 36%
Western Steppe Pastoralists 23%
Neolithic Farmers 23%
European Hunter-Gatherers 17%
Modern Genetic Admixture

Modern genetic admixture analysis compares the DNA profile of this individual (BUR004) with present-day reference populations. These results show what percentage of the individual's genetic makeup resembles modern populations from different geographic regions.

These results complement the ancient ancestry components shown in the previous section, offering a different perspective on the individual's genetic profile by comparing it with modern reference populations rather than prehistoric ancestral groups.

Asia 69%
Central Asian, Northern Indian & Pakistani 32%
Central Asian 18.2%
Pakistan 8.5%
Indian 5.1%
Northern Asian 18%
Siberian 10.7%
Mongolian 7.7%
Northern West Asian 17%
Caucasian 16.9%
Japanese & Korean 2%
Japanese 2.1%
Chinese & Southeast Asian 0%
Europe 28%
Eastern European 18%
Eastern European 18.0%
Northwestern European 7%
Northwestern European 5.0%
Scandinavian 2.3%
Southern European 2%
Balkan 2.5%
America 2%
America 2%
Native American 1.9%
Africa 1%
North African 1%
Egyptian 0.8%
G25 Coordinates

The G25 coordinates for the sample BUR004 are as follows. You can analyze its admixture using G25 Studio.

BUR004,0.08413508,-0.06372712,0.02239074,0.0217197,-0.04528318,0.00096418,0.00550886,0.0025466,-0.0163212,-0.01806986,0.00013184,0.00187646,-0.00209326,-0.00466412,0.00841538,0.0048514,-0.00250622,0.00114388,0.00255768,1.946E-05,-0.00507034,0.00021622,0.0037216,0.00662628,0.00142072
Analyze it in G25 Studio
Scientific Papers References
A Dynamic 6,000-Year Genetic History of Eurasia's Eastern Steppe
Authors:
Jeong C, Wang K, Wilkin S
Abstract:

The Eastern Eurasian Steppe was home to historic empires of nomadic pastoralists, including the Xiongnu and the Mongols. However, little is known about the region's population history. Here, we reveal its dynamic genetic history by analyzing new genome-wide data for 214 ancient individuals spanning 6,000 years. We identify a pastoralist expansion into Mongolia ca. 3000 BCE, and by the Late Bronze Age, Mongolian populations were biogeographically structured into three distinct groups, all practicing dairy pastoralism regardless of ancestry. The Xiongnu emerged from the mixing of these populations and those from surrounding regions. By comparison, the Mongols exhibit much higher eastern Eurasian ancestry, resembling present-day Mongolic-speaking populations. Our results illuminate the complex interplay between genetic, sociopolitical, and cultural changes on the Eastern Steppe.

Link:
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