A woman buried in Romania in the Neolithic era
The Starčevo-Criș Culture, also known as the Starčevo-Körös-Criș Culture, is a notable early Neolithic archaeological culture that flourished in Southeastern Europe. This culture is a part of the broader Neolithic transition in Europe, marking the shift from hunter-gatherer societies to agrarian societies, characterized by the domestication of plants and animals. The Starčevo-Criș Culture is predominantly situated in the regions that now comprise modern-day Hungary, Romania, Serbia, and Croatia, with its influence spanning parts of the Balkans and the Carpathian Basin. It dates back to roughly 6200–4500 BCE.
Geographical Context
This culture is primarily associated with the fertile plains and river valleys of the Middle Danube and surrounding areas. The prominent geographical features influencing the Starčevo-Criș people included the Danube River and its tributaries, which provided fertile floodplains that were highly suitable for early agriculture. The easy access to water and arable land played a crucial role in the development of sedentary farming communities.
Material Culture
Pottery
One of the defining features of the Starčevo-Criș Culture is its distinctive pottery, which provides crucial insights into the cultural practices and daily life of its people. The pottery is often well-made, with vessels typically being round-bottomed and decorated with incised or painted geometric patterns and motifs. These designs reflect both functional utility and aesthetic considerations, and they serve as important cultural markers for archaeologists.
Tools and Implements
Stone and bone tools are prevalent in Starčevo-Criș archaeological sites, showing a transition from Mesolithic to Neolithic technology. The assemblages include polished stone axes, adzes, and an array of flint tools. These tools were essential for a variety of tasks, including farming, hunting, and domestic chores.
Subsistence and Economy
The economy of the Starčevo-Criș Culture was primarily agrarian, with evidence of both crop cultivation and animal husbandry. Archaeobotanical analyses reveal the cultivation of early domesticated plants such as emmer wheat, einkorn wheat, barley, and legumes. This early form of farming involved the slash-and-burn technique to clear forests, creating fields for agricultural use.
Animal husbandry was also important, with domestic animals including cattle, pigs, sheep, and goats. The presence of domesticated animals indicates the development of pastoralist activities alongside sedentary farming.
Settlements and Architecture
Settlement patterns of the Starčevo-Criș Culture were typically small, comprising hamlets or villages with several households. These settlements were strategically located near water sources and fertile land. Housing structures varied, though they commonly included rectangular or oval semi-subterranean pit-houses, which provided insulation against temperature extremes. The use of wattle and daub construction techniques suggests a nuanced understanding of building materials and methods.
Social Structure and Organization
While specific details about the social structure of the Starčevo-Criș peoples remain elusive due to the limited direct evidence, their community sizes and organization suggest relatively egalitarian social structures typical of early Neolithic societies. The lack of monumental architecture or grand burials typically associated with hierarchical societies supports the notion that these communities were likely organized around kinship or clan-based groups, with communal decision-making processes.
Religion and Rituals
Evidence of spiritual and ritualistic practices is inferred from burial practices and symbolic artifacts. The burial sites, often located in the vicinity of settlements, indicate a belief system involving an afterlife or ancestor veneration. Figurines and amulets discovered at various sites may have had religious or protective significance, indicating a spiritual dimension to their daily life.
Influence and Legacy
The Starčevo-Criș Culture played a fundamental role in the Neolithization of Southeastern Europe. As one of the earliest farming cultures in the region, it established the foundation for subsequent cultural developments, influencing neighboring and successor cultures like the Vinča and Linear Pottery cultures. The spread of agriculture and settled life from the Starčevo-Criș Culture into central and western Europe marks a significant phase in European prehistory, shaping the social and economic trajectories of future European societies.
In conclusion, the Starčevo-Criș Culture is emblematic of early European agrarian societies, showcasing advancements in agriculture, settlement patterns, and communal living. Its evolution and influence highlight the complex interplays of socio-economic and environmental factors that underpin the broader narrative of human civilization's transition from foraging to farming.
Genetic continuity, isolation, and gene flow in Stone Age Central and Eastern Europe
The genomic landscape of Stone Age Europe was shaped by multiple migratory waves and population replacements, but different regions do not all show similar patterns. To refine our understanding of the population dynamics before and after the dawn of the Neolithic, we generated and analyzed genomic sequence data from human remains of 56 individuals from the Mesolithic, Neolithic, and Eneolithic across Central and Eastern Europe. We found that Mesolithic European populations formed a geographically widespread isolation-by-distance zone ranging from Central Europe to Siberia, which was already established 10,000 years ago. We found contrasting patterns of population continuity during the Neolithic transition: people around the lower Dnipro Valley region, Ukraine, showed continuity over 4000 years, from the Mesolithic to the end of the Neolithic, in contrast to almost all other parts of Europe where population turnover drove this cultural change, including vast areas of Central Europe and around the Danube River.