A man buried in Hungary in the Middle Neolithic era
The Middle Neolithic Linear Pottery Culture (LBK), which flourished in Central Europe during the early Neolithic period, approximately between 5500 and 4500 BCE, marked a significant phase in the transition from hunting and gathering to settled agricultural societies. The LBK is primarily characterized by its distinctive pottery and was one of the first cultures in Europe to practice farming on a large scale. In what is now Hungary, as well as other parts of Central and Eastern Europe, the LBK played a crucial role in the spread of agriculture and the development of complex societies.
Settlement Patterns and Architecture
LBK communities were generally small, consisting of villages with longhouses, which were the typical dwelling structures. These longhouses were often rectangular and sizeable, measuring up to 20 meters in length and 5-7 meters in width. The construction was primarily of timber, with wattle and daub walls and thatched roofs. In Hungary, LBK settlements were usually located in fertile river valleys, which provided rich soils for agriculture, ample water resources, and natural defense advantages.
Subsistence and Economy
The Linear Pottery Culture was founded on a mixed farming economy. The primary crops cultivated included various cereals such as emmer wheat, einkorn wheat, barley, and legumes like peas and lentils. Animal husbandry was also significant, with cattle, pigs, sheep, and goats being the principal domesticated species. This development of agriculture allowed the LBK communities to sustain larger populations and promote sedentism. Additionally, there is evidence of hunting and gathering, with wild game, fish, and various plant resources supplementing the diet.
Pottery and Material Culture
One of the most defining features of the LBK is its pottery, notable for its linear and geometric decorations etched into the surfaces, giving the culture its name. Pottery was not only functional but also served as a medium for artistic expression. The vessels were primarily used for storage, cooking, and serving food and beverages. Flint tools were prevalent, including long blades used as sickles, arrowheads, and other domestic tools. Stone axes and adzes, often made from imported raw materials, highlight the development of specialized tool production and trade networks.
Social Organization and Life
The social structure of LBK societies is believed to have been relatively egalitarian based on archaeological evidence. However, some degree of social stratification could be inferred from differential access to goods and burial practices. Graves, often simple pits, occasionally contained grave goods such as tools and pottery, indicating a belief in an afterlife and perhaps some societal hierarchy.
Trade and Interaction
LBK communities participated in extensive trade networks, evidenced by the distribution of non-local raw materials like Spondylus shells from the Mediterranean, obsidian from the Carpathian Mountains, and other exotic goods. These networks facilitated not only economic transactions but also the exchange of ideas and cultural practices across vast distances.
Cultural Practices and Spirituality
The spiritual and religious aspects of the LBK culture remain less understood due to limited direct evidence. However, the presence of figurines, treated human remains, and ritual deposits suggest a rich spiritual life with likely reverence for ancestors and nature. The variability in burial practices may also reflect diverse beliefs and rituals.
Legacy
The LBK represents a critical stage in the prehistoric development of Europe, acting as a catalyst for the spread of agricultural practices across vast regions. In Hungary, the influence of the LBK laid foundational cultural and economic elements that influenced subsequent Neolithic cultures in the region. Its legacy can be seen in the continuity of agricultural practices, settlement patterns, and technological advancements that shaped the prehistoric and historical trajectories of Central Europe.
Though much remains to be discovered about this fascinating culture, the LBK’s contributions to the Neolithicization of Europe are invaluable, marking a period of innovation, adaptation, and expansion that fundamentally altered human history on the continent.
Ancient genetic admixture analysis compares the DNA profile of this individual (NE6) with present-day reference populations. These results show what percentage of the individual's genetic makeup resembles ancient populations from different geographic regions.
Modern genetic admixture analysis compares the DNA profile of this individual (NE6) with present-day reference populations. These results show what percentage of the individual's genetic makeup resembles modern populations from different geographic regions.
These results complement the ancient ancestry components shown in the previous section, offering a different perspective on the individual's genetic profile by comparing it with modern reference populations rather than prehistoric ancestral groups.
The G25 coordinates for the sample NE6 are as follows. You can analyze its admixture using G25 Studio.
NE6,0.11335496,0.16087664,0.00765534,-0.05778022,0.04860352,-0.02693666,-0.00269008,0.00286388,0.03812956,0.0663344,-0.00216638,0.01125256,-0.01951586,-0.0116056,-0.01369832,0.00577682,0.01521364,0.00039542,0.00076336,-0.0037988,-0.00174842,0.00403882,-0.01120604,-0.01803112,0.00436724
Genome flux and stasis in a five millennium transect of European prehistory
The Great Hungarian Plain was a crossroads of cultural transformations that have shaped European prehistory. Here we analyse a 5,000-year transect of human genomes, sampled from petrous bones giving consistently excellent endogenous DNA yields, from 13 Hungarian Neolithic, Copper, Bronze and Iron Age burials including two to high (~22 × ) and seven to ~1 × coverage, to investigate the impact of these on Europe's genetic landscape. These data suggest genomic shifts with the advent of the Neolithic, Bronze and Iron Ages, with interleaved periods of genome stability. The earliest Neolithic context genome shows a European hunter-gatherer genetic signature and a restricted ancestral population size, suggesting direct contact between cultures after the arrival of the first farmers into Europe. The latest, Iron Age, sample reveals an eastern genomic influence concordant with introduced Steppe burial rites. We observe transition towards lighter pigmentation and surprisingly, no Neolithic presence of lactase persistence.