A man buried in Italy in the Copper Age era
The Chalcolithic period, also known as the Copper Age, in Sardinia, Italy, represents a significant era in the island's prehistoric cultures. This period is generally dated from around 3000 to 2300 BCE and marks a transitional phase between the Neolithic (New Stone Age) and the Bronze Age. The Chalcolithic era in Sardinia is characterized by the introduction and use of metal, particularly copper, although stone tools continued to be prevalent.
Cultural and Technological Developments
Metallurgy: The introduction of copper metallurgy was a major technological advancement during the Chalcolithic period. Sardinia had rich deposits of copper ore, which facilitated metal extraction and processing. Evidence of metalworking includes tools, ornaments, and weapons such as axes, chisels, and daggers. These early metal artifacts indicate not only the practical applications but also the emergent symbolic and trade value of metal objects.
Ceramics and Pottery: Chalcolithic Sardinia saw advancements in pottery techniques and styles. Pottery was typically handmade and often decorated with geometric patterns and motifs. Innovations in ceramics included the development of bell beakers, which are indicative of the Bell Beaker culture, known for its wide diffusion across Europe.
Architecture and Settlement Patterns: The Chalcolithic period witnessed changes in settlement patterns, with communities often situated on elevated ground near resource-rich environments like valleys and plains. This era is marked by the construction of megalithic structures, including dolmens and early examples of nuraghi, which later became more prevalent in the Bronze Age.
Social Organization and Lifestyle
Agriculture and Economy: The economy during this period was largely based on agriculture, animal husbandry, hunting, and fishing. The domestication of animals such as cattle, sheep, and goats played a vital role in the agrarian lifestyle. The cultivation of crops like wheat and barley is evident, along with the gathering of local berries, fruits, and nuts.
Trade and Interaction: Sardinia’s strategic position in the Mediterranean facilitated trade and cultural interactions with neighboring regions. Artifacts such as obsidian, coming from distant sources, provide evidence of far-reaching trade networks. The exchange of goods, ideas, and technologies with mainland Italy and other Mediterranean cultures enriched Sardinia's cultural complexity.
Social Structure: The Chalcolithic societies in Sardinia were likely organized into tribal communities or clans with emerging social stratification. Leadership roles may have been occupied by chieftains or influential figures, potentially linked to their control over resources like metal ores and arable land.
Rituals and Beliefs
Megalithic Tombs and Burial Practices: Burial practices from this period suggest belief in an afterlife and ancestral veneration. Megalithic tombs, such as dolmens and allées couvertes, served as communal burial sites. Grave goods, including pottery, tools, and ornaments, were often placed with the deceased, indicating ritual offerings or status markers.
Deities and Mythology: Although specific deities are difficult to identify, it is likely that the natural world and agricultural cycles played a central role in religious beliefs. The presence of anthropomorphic figurines suggests a form of animism or early deity worship, with potential reverence for fertility and the life-sustaining forces of nature.
Artistic Expression
Petroglyphs and Carvings: Artistic expression during the Chalcolithic period included petroglyphs and rock carvings, often depicting animals, humans, and abstract symbols. These artworks could have served ritualistic purposes or been used to denote territorial or clan identities.
Decorative Arts: The craftsmanship of decorative items, such as personal ornaments made of bone, stone, and copper, reflected both aesthetic and social values. The intricate designs often exemplified skilled artistry and may have denoted social standing or cultural affiliations.
In conclusion, the Chalcolithic period in Sardinia was a dynamic and formative time marked by technological innovations, evolving social structures, and increasing intercultural interactions. This era laid the groundwork for the island's later development during the Bronze Age, navigating through the complex interplay of cultural persistence and change.
Ancient genetic admixture analysis compares the DNA profile of this individual (I16164) with present-day reference populations. These results show what percentage of the individual's genetic makeup resembles ancient populations from different geographic regions.
Modern genetic admixture analysis compares the DNA profile of this individual (I16164) with present-day reference populations. These results show what percentage of the individual's genetic makeup resembles modern populations from different geographic regions.
These results complement the ancient ancestry components shown in the previous section, offering a different perspective on the individual's genetic profile by comparing it with modern reference populations rather than prehistoric ancestral groups.
The G25 coordinates for the sample I16164 are as follows. You can analyze its admixture using G25 Studio.
I16164,0.11991108,0.16157572,0.02378904,-0.04448788,0.05826492,-0.02217116,-0.00231532,0.00553084,0.03969676,0.07197976,-0.0039588,0.0149072,-0.02669504,-0.0148642,-0.01159576,0.00493096,0.01405432,-2.416E-05,-0.00039316,-0.00412632,-0.00054024,0.00428048,-0.01225276,-0.0197394,0.00445395
The spread of steppe and Iranian-related ancestry in the islands of the western Mediterranean
Steppe-pastoralist-related ancestry reached Central Europe by at least 2500 BC, whereas Iranian farmer-related ancestry was present in Aegean Europe by at least 1900 BC. However, the spread of these ancestries into the western Mediterranean, where they have contributed to many populations that live today, remains poorly understood. Here, we generated genome-wide ancient-DNA data from the Balearic Islands, Sicily and Sardinia, increasing the number of individuals with reported data from 5 to 66. The oldest individual from the Balearic Islands (~2400 BC) carried ancestry from steppe pastoralists that probably derived from west-to-east migration from Iberia, although two later Balearic individuals had less ancestry from steppe pastoralists. In Sicily, steppe pastoralist ancestry arrived by ~2200 BC, in part from Iberia; Iranian-related ancestry arrived by the mid-second millennium BC, contemporary to its previously documented spread to the Aegean; and there was large-scale population replacement after the Bronze Age. In Sardinia, nearly all ancestry derived from the island's early farmers until the first millennium BC, with the exception of an outlier from the third millennium BC, who had primarily North African ancestry and who-along with an approximately contemporary Iberian-documents widespread Africa-to-Europe gene flow in the Chalcolithic. Major immigration into Sardinia began in the first millennium BC and, at present, no more than 56-62% of Sardinian ancestry is from its first farmers. This value is lower than previous estimates, highlighting that Sardinia, similar to every other region in Europe, has been a stage for major movement and mixtures of people.