A man buried in Italy in the Middle Ages era
Late Antique Sardinia, during the period of the Byzantine Empire, was a fascinating era marked by cultural, political, and socio-economic transformations. This period roughly spans from the late 4th century AD to the early Middle Ages, following the decline of the Western Roman Empire and leading into a time when Sardinia became part of the Byzantine Empire.
Political Context
After the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD, Sardinia was a part of the Ostrogothic Kingdom until the Byzantine Emperor Justinian I's successful campaigns in the mid-6th century, specifically the Gothic War (535–554 AD) which aimed to reclaim former Roman territories. As part of the Empire's expansive reclamation campaign, Sardinia became a province under Byzantine rule, administered as the Praetorian prefecture of Africa. It was a strategically significant location, given its position in the central Mediterranean.
Administrative and Military Structure
Under Byzantine rule, Sardinia was governed by a dux (military commander) and had a largely military character owing to its strategic importance. The dux was responsible for defense and maintaining law and order. The administrative system was deeply influenced by Byzantine centralization, and the island was divided into smaller administrative units to improve governance. Byzantine officials, often sent from Constantinople, were tasked with managing these regions, and they wielded considerable authority.
Economy and Industry
Economically, Late Antique Sardinia was largely agrarian, characterized by a rural economy that persisted throughout the Byzantine period. Agriculture, particularly the cultivation of grains, olives, and grapes, remained the backbone of the economy, alongside animal husbandry. The Byzantine administration attempted to enhance production efficiencies and maximize tax revenues from these lands. Maritime trade was also crucial, with Sardinia serving as a vital naval base and trade hub in the Mediterranean, facilitating the exchange of goods between the African provinces and the wider Byzantine territories.
Religion and Society
Christianity played a central role in the cultural life of Sardinia during this era. The island's Christianization process had begun under Roman rule, and it further intensified under Byzantine influence. Byzantine religious policies promoted orthodox Christianity, and numerous churches and basilicas were established, often decorated with intricate mosaics that remain an important part of Sardinian cultural heritage today. The Church held significant power, intertwining with secular rule to determine societal norms and laws. Monastic communities also began to emerge, contributing to the religious and cultural landscape.
Culture and Language
Culturally, the Byzantine period in Sardinia was marked by a blend of Roman traditions and Byzantine innovations. The Latin language remained predominant, although Greek, the administrative language of the Byzantine Empire, was used by governing officials. This bilingual environment influenced local literature, art, and inscriptions. Byzantine art and architecture began to assimilate into the local setting, evident in the religious and civic structures that still populate the island, ornate with iconography and motifs typical of Byzantine aesthetic sensibilities.
Challenges and Conflicts
The island faced numerous external threats, including raids by Vandals and eventually Saracens, which necessitated a robust military presence and fortified towns. These threats placed pressure on local resources and impacted the stability of Byzantine rule. Internally, tensions sometimes arose between the local populace and Byzantine administrators due to differing cultural and political practices.
Decline and Legacy
By the late 8th and early 9th centuries, Byzantine control over Sardinia began to weaken, leading to increased local autonomy and eventually the establishment of the Judicates, a unique form of indigenous government. The legacy of the Byzantine era in Sardinia is profound, influencing the island's religious practices, art, architectural heritage, and cultural identity that persisted long after formal Byzantine influence waned.
In summary, Late Antique Sardinia under the Byzantine Empire was a dynamic period characterized by evolving political control, a vibrant rural economy, a strong Christian cultural influence, and a blending of Roman and Byzantine cultural elements, all of which contributed to shaping the historical trajectory of the island.
Ancient genetic admixture analysis compares the DNA profile of this individual (I12220) with present-day reference populations. These results show what percentage of the individual's genetic makeup resembles ancient populations from different geographic regions.
Modern genetic admixture analysis compares the DNA profile of this individual (I12220) with present-day reference populations. These results show what percentage of the individual's genetic makeup resembles modern populations from different geographic regions.
These results complement the ancient ancestry components shown in the previous section, offering a different perspective on the individual's genetic profile by comparing it with modern reference populations rather than prehistoric ancestral groups.
The G25 coordinates for the sample I12220 are as follows. You can analyze its admixture using G25 Studio.
I12220,0.09121884,0.14464732,-0.00903828,-0.05674574,0.01956224,-0.02622208,-0.00319462,0.00091022,0.02650158,0.03086702,0.00275262,-0.00060566,0.00223482,-0.00441952,-0.0084175,0.00530076,0.00012376,0.00090506,0.00206624,0.00167476,0.0028947,0.00627918,-0.01015672,-0.00727024,-0.0011321
The spread of steppe and Iranian-related ancestry in the islands of the western Mediterranean
Steppe-pastoralist-related ancestry reached Central Europe by at least 2500 BC, whereas Iranian farmer-related ancestry was present in Aegean Europe by at least 1900 BC. However, the spread of these ancestries into the western Mediterranean, where they have contributed to many populations that live today, remains poorly understood. Here, we generated genome-wide ancient-DNA data from the Balearic Islands, Sicily and Sardinia, increasing the number of individuals with reported data from 5 to 66. The oldest individual from the Balearic Islands (~2400 BC) carried ancestry from steppe pastoralists that probably derived from west-to-east migration from Iberia, although two later Balearic individuals had less ancestry from steppe pastoralists. In Sicily, steppe pastoralist ancestry arrived by ~2200 BC, in part from Iberia; Iranian-related ancestry arrived by the mid-second millennium BC, contemporary to its previously documented spread to the Aegean; and there was large-scale population replacement after the Bronze Age. In Sardinia, nearly all ancestry derived from the island's early farmers until the first millennium BC, with the exception of an outlier from the third millennium BC, who had primarily North African ancestry and who-along with an approximately contemporary Iberian-documents widespread Africa-to-Europe gene flow in the Chalcolithic. Major immigration into Sardinia began in the first millennium BC and, at present, no more than 56-62% of Sardinian ancestry is from its first farmers. This value is lower than previous estimates, highlighting that Sardinia, similar to every other region in Europe, has been a stage for major movement and mixtures of people.