A man buried in Italy in the Middle Ages era
Early Medieval Sardinia, during the Byzantine Empire period, is a fascinating and complex era that played a significant role in the island's history. This period roughly spans from the 6th to the 11th century, marked by a blend of influences resulting from Sardinia's strategic location in the Mediterranean Sea. Here’s an extensive look at this era:
Historical Context
Byzantine Control: After the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century, Sardinia, like much of the western Mediterranean, faced waves of invasions. By the middle of the 6th century, the Byzantine Empire, the continuation of the Eastern Roman Empire, reasserted control over the island, making it part of the Exarchate of Africa. Sardinia became an important imperial province due to its geographic location, acting as a buffer against other powers such as the Vandals and later the Lombards.
Administrative Structure: The Byzantines reorganized Sardinia’s administrative system. The island was governed by a Byzantine official known as a dux who managed both military and administrative functions. As part of the restructuring, Sardinia was divided into several districts, with Cagliari, its capital, being the administrative center.
Military and Strategic Importance: Strategically located in the central Mediterranean, Sardinia served as a vital military outpost in controlling sea routes and defending the eastern and southern coasts of the Italian Peninsula from incursions.
Cultural and Social Life
Cultural Syncretism: The period saw a fusion of Roman, Byzantine, and local Sardinian traditions. This is evident in the architectural styles, religious practices, and the continuation of Roman laws and customs alongside Byzantine influences.
Christianity and Ecclesiastical Structures: Christianity continued to flourish during this period. The Byzantine Empire reinforced the Nicene Creed and attempted to root out Arianism and other heresies on the island. Churches were built in a distinct Byzantine architectural style, and new monastic communities emerged, often following the Benedictine Rule. Political control often paralleled ecclesiastical authority, with bishops playing leading roles in both spiritual and civic matters.
Language and Literacy: Greek became a prominent language due to Byzantine influence, adding to the local Latin dialects. Literacy was primarily preserved within the Church, which remained the main center for education and manuscript production, ensuring the survival of classical and religious texts.
Economy and Daily Life
Agriculture and Economy: The agricultural practices of Sardinia during this period were adapted to the island’s rugged terrain. Olives, grains, and grapes were significant crops. The Byzantine administration incentivized agricultural activities to sustain the local population and Byzantine garrisons.
Trade: The island’s economy was modest but benefited from trade across the Mediterranean. Exports included grain, salt, and minerals. Sardinia also participated in the widespread Mediterranean trade networks facilitated by Byzantine seafaring prowess, connecting it with Africa, the Italian Peninsula, and other parts of the Byzantine Empire.
Viking and Arab Incursions: During the latter part of the Early Medieval period, Sardinia faced raids and challenges from Viking warriors and Arab fleets. These incursions pressured local leaders to develop more autonomous governance structures, leading to the eventual emergence of the Sardinian Judicates in the 9th and 10th centuries.
Transition to Autonomy
Decline of Byzantine Control: By the 8th century, Byzantine control weakened due to the expansion of the Muslim Caliphates and the internal struggles within the Byzantine Empire. This decline led to greater autonomy for Sardinia’s local leaders and the eventual development of the Judicates, semi-independent regions each governed by a judge, or judex.
Cultural Legacy: Despite the political changes, Byzantine influence left a lasting imprint on Sardinian art, architecture, religious practices, and civil law. The ecclesiastical framework and monastic traditions established during this period continued to influence Sardinian cultural and spiritual life for centuries.
In conclusion, Early Medieval Sardinia under the Byzantine Empire was a period marked by cultural synthesis, strategic significance, and the seeds for political transformations. The island's inhabitants navigated external threats and internal shifts to eventually carve out a distinctive identity that blended Byzantine, Roman, and indigenous influences, setting the stage for the unique development of Sardinian medieval history.
Ancient genetic admixture analysis compares the DNA profile of this individual (I12221) with present-day reference populations. These results show what percentage of the individual's genetic makeup resembles ancient populations from different geographic regions.
Modern genetic admixture analysis compares the DNA profile of this individual (I12221) with present-day reference populations. These results show what percentage of the individual's genetic makeup resembles modern populations from different geographic regions.
These results complement the ancient ancestry components shown in the previous section, offering a different perspective on the individual's genetic profile by comparing it with modern reference populations rather than prehistoric ancestral groups.
The G25 coordinates for the sample I12221 are as follows. You can analyze its admixture using G25 Studio.
I12221,0.10398374,0.13719668,0.0163587,-0.01222436,0.02784302,-0.00372308,-0.00020332,0.00283236,0.0117155,0.01709618,-0.00487254,0.00869632,-0.01016718,-0.00671428,0.00215296,-0.00038426,0.00612644,-0.0008252,-0.00152676,0.00034982,0.00401704,0.00295168,-0.00184956,-0.0046079,7.133E-05
The spread of steppe and Iranian-related ancestry in the islands of the western Mediterranean
Steppe-pastoralist-related ancestry reached Central Europe by at least 2500 BC, whereas Iranian farmer-related ancestry was present in Aegean Europe by at least 1900 BC. However, the spread of these ancestries into the western Mediterranean, where they have contributed to many populations that live today, remains poorly understood. Here, we generated genome-wide ancient-DNA data from the Balearic Islands, Sicily and Sardinia, increasing the number of individuals with reported data from 5 to 66. The oldest individual from the Balearic Islands (~2400 BC) carried ancestry from steppe pastoralists that probably derived from west-to-east migration from Iberia, although two later Balearic individuals had less ancestry from steppe pastoralists. In Sicily, steppe pastoralist ancestry arrived by ~2200 BC, in part from Iberia; Iranian-related ancestry arrived by the mid-second millennium BC, contemporary to its previously documented spread to the Aegean; and there was large-scale population replacement after the Bronze Age. In Sardinia, nearly all ancestry derived from the island's early farmers until the first millennium BC, with the exception of an outlier from the third millennium BC, who had primarily North African ancestry and who-along with an approximately contemporary Iberian-documents widespread Africa-to-Europe gene flow in the Chalcolithic. Major immigration into Sardinia began in the first millennium BC and, at present, no more than 56-62% of Sardinian ancestry is from its first farmers. This value is lower than previous estimates, highlighting that Sardinia, similar to every other region in Europe, has been a stage for major movement and mixtures of people.