A woman buried in Italy in the Iron Age era
The Iron Age 2 in Sardinia, Italy, marks a significant period in the development of the Nuragic civilization, approximately spanning from 900 to 500 BCE. This era is characterized by sociopolitical transformations, advancements in metallurgy, and intensified interaction with other Mediterranean cultures.
Sociopolitical Structure
During the Iron Age 2, the Nuragic society was organized into a complex social structure characterized by chiefdoms. These were ruled by local leaders or chieftains who managed the affairs of their respective territories. The social hierarchy was composed of elites who likely lived in fortified nuraghe complexes, while the common people inhabited surrounding villages. These chieftains wielded power and orchestrated trade, diplomatic relations, and military activities.
Architectural Developments
The Nuragic civilization is renowned for its unique architectural constructions. In this era, the nuraghes — large, circular stone towers — continued to serve as pivotal structures. However, their role evolved from purely military and defensive strongholds to multifunctional centers that included religious and communal purposes. Settlements expanded around these nuraghes, including circular huts and other communal buildings which suggest a degree of urbanization.
In addition to the nuraghes, \giants' graves" (collective burials) and sacred wells were prevalent. These structures reflect the Nuragic people’s religious beliefs and their architectural ingenuity.
Metallurgy and Technology
Iron Age 2 heralded advancements in metallurgy, particularly in the use of iron alongside bronze, marking a transition from earlier periods. The Nuragic people were adept metallurgists, creating a variety of tools, weapons, and ornaments. Renowned for their bronze statuettes (bronzetti), these small figures depicted warriors, animals, and deities, showcasing the Nuragic people's artistic skills and their penchant for detailed craftsmanship.
Economy and Trade
The economy of the Iron Age 2 Nuragic civilization was predominantly agrarian, supported by pastoralism, agriculture, and fishing. However, there was also an increase in trade activities during this period. Sardinia's strategic location in the Mediterranean facilitated interactions with the Etruscans, Phoenicians, and other Italic peoples, allowing the Nuragic civilization to exchange goods such as metals, pottery, and textiles. This exchange led to cultural influences, particularly seen in ceramic styles and artistic motifs.
Religion and Belief Systems
The Nuragic religion during Iron Age 2 was polytheistic, with a strong emphasis on nature worship. Sacred sites, like sanctuaries and temples, became more prevalent. Ritual practices possibly included offerings at sacred wells and communal gatherings at temples dedicated to various deities. The bronzetti often depicted religious scenes, providing insights into the mythological world and spiritual practices of the Nuragic people.
Cultural Identity and Legacy
Culturally, the Nuragic civilization during this era was distinct yet visibly evolving under external influences. Despite these influences, the Nuragic people maintained a unique identity, evident in their language, art, and architecture.
The legacy of the Nuragic civilization in Iron Age 2 Sardinia is significant, influencing subsequent cultures in the Mediterranean. Their architectural innovations and metallurgical techniques contributed to the broader tapestry of ancient Mediterranean civilizations. The enduring presence of nuraghes and other monumental structures on the Sardinian landscape stands testament to their sophisticated society.
In conclusion, Iron Age 2 was a pivotal period for the Nuragic civilization in Sardinia, characterized by advanced social structures, significant architectural and technological achievements, and dynamic interactions with other Mediterranean cultures. This era laid the groundwork for the subsequent periods of development and integration into the broader historical context of ancient Italy and the Mediterranean world."
Ancient genetic admixture analysis compares the DNA profile of this individual (I16163) with present-day reference populations. These results show what percentage of the individual's genetic makeup resembles ancient populations from different geographic regions.
Modern genetic admixture analysis compares the DNA profile of this individual (I16163) with present-day reference populations. These results show what percentage of the individual's genetic makeup resembles modern populations from different geographic regions.
These results complement the ancient ancestry components shown in the previous section, offering a different perspective on the individual's genetic profile by comparing it with modern reference populations rather than prehistoric ancestral groups.
The G25 coordinates for the sample I16163 are as follows. You can analyze its admixture using G25 Studio.
I16163,0.1154617,0.15329682,0.02526342,-0.03528288,0.05176264,-0.01756856,-0.0023681,0.00409846,0.03381364,0.05698526,-0.00134892,0.01041928,-0.019892,-0.01472712,-0.0071868,0.00757474,0.01552388,-0.00059816,6.9E-06,-0.00236948,0.00224022,0.0020827,-0.00850114,-0.0127121,0.00204893
The spread of steppe and Iranian-related ancestry in the islands of the western Mediterranean
Steppe-pastoralist-related ancestry reached Central Europe by at least 2500 BC, whereas Iranian farmer-related ancestry was present in Aegean Europe by at least 1900 BC. However, the spread of these ancestries into the western Mediterranean, where they have contributed to many populations that live today, remains poorly understood. Here, we generated genome-wide ancient-DNA data from the Balearic Islands, Sicily and Sardinia, increasing the number of individuals with reported data from 5 to 66. The oldest individual from the Balearic Islands (~2400 BC) carried ancestry from steppe pastoralists that probably derived from west-to-east migration from Iberia, although two later Balearic individuals had less ancestry from steppe pastoralists. In Sicily, steppe pastoralist ancestry arrived by ~2200 BC, in part from Iberia; Iranian-related ancestry arrived by the mid-second millennium BC, contemporary to its previously documented spread to the Aegean; and there was large-scale population replacement after the Bronze Age. In Sardinia, nearly all ancestry derived from the island's early farmers until the first millennium BC, with the exception of an outlier from the third millennium BC, who had primarily North African ancestry and who-along with an approximately contemporary Iberian-documents widespread Africa-to-Europe gene flow in the Chalcolithic. Major immigration into Sardinia began in the first millennium BC and, at present, no more than 56-62% of Sardinian ancestry is from its first farmers. This value is lower than previous estimates, highlighting that Sardinia, similar to every other region in Europe, has been a stage for major movement and mixtures of people.