A woman buried in Italy in the Iron Age era
The Iron Age in Sardinia, particularly the period associated with the Nuragic Civilization, marks a fascinating and complex chapter in the island's long history. The Nuragic Civilization, which thrived approximately between the 18th century BCE and the 2nd century CE, saw significant developments during the Iron Age, particularly in terms of societal structure, architecture, and cultural practices. This era, often referred to as Iron Age 1 in Sardinia, showcases the sophistication and resilience of the Nuragic people amid changing geopolitical and technological landscapes.
Architectural and Technological Developments
One of the most striking features of the Nuragic Civilization during the Iron Age is the proliferation and sophistication of nuraghi, the monumental stone towers that have become emblematic of Sardinia. These tower structures evolved from simple corridor nuraghi to complex tholoi, sometimes surrounded by additional structures forming villages or ceremonial complexes known as \complex nuraghi." The construction of these edifices demonstrates advanced knowledge of masonry and architecture, using large stones meticulously cut and smoothly fitted without the use of mortar.
In addition to nuraghi, the Nuragic people also developed sacred wells and meeting rooms, known as "megaron temples," which further underline their architectural prowess and suggest a complex societal structure focused on community and spiritual life.
Societal and Cultural Dynamics
The Iron Age saw the Nuragic culture reaching new heights in its social organization. The society appears to have been organized into tribal units, each led by a chief or king, which might explain the need for and the construction of impressive communal structures like nuraghi. These buildings may have served multiple purposes: as defensive strongholds, living quarters for the elite, religious centers, and as symbols of power and community identity.
The Nuragic economy during this period was robust, based on agriculture, animal husbandry, metallurgy, and maritime trade. The Nuragic people were adept metalworkers, and the island was rich in metals such as copper and tin, which were essential for producing bronze—an alloy that was pivotal for tools, weapons, and various artifacts. Trade connections with other Mediterranean cultures, including the Mycenaeans, Phoenicians, and later, the Etruscans and Romans, indicate that Sardinia was an integral part of the ancient trade networks.
Artistic and Spiritual Expression
The material culture of Iron Age Sardinia is rich in artistic expressions that reflect both local and borrowed influences. Bronze statuettes, crafted with exquisite detail, depict warriors, animals, religious figures, and scenes from daily life, providing valuable insights into the Nuragic worldview and artistry. These figurines often served religious or ritual purposes, aligning with the broader Mediterranean religious phenomena of the time.
Additionally, sacred wells and temples underscore the spiritual life of the Nuragic people. These structures, often aligned with celestial events, point toward an advanced understanding of astronomy and a deep connection with the natural world. Rituals likely revolved around agriculture, fertility, and the transition between life and death, echoing themes common across ancient Mediterranean religions.
External Influences and Interactions
Throughout the Iron Age, Nuragic Sardinia was not isolated but rather part of a vibrant tapestry of Mediterranean interactions. Contacts with the Phoenicians brought new technologies, artistic styles, and possibly new religious concepts. The arrival of these external influences challenged and sometimes integrated with the local cultural practices. For instance, the Phoenician script began to appear in the region, influencing local administrative and commercial practices.
By the end of the Iron Age, around the late 1st millennium BCE, increasing pressure from external powers, particularly the rising Roman Republic, led to significant changes. The Roman annexation of Sardinia in 238 BCE marked the end of Nuragic political autonomy but not the disappearance of its cultural legacy, which continued to influence Sardinian cultural identities well into the Roman period.
Conclusion
The Iron Age I in Sardinia is a testament to the ingenuity and adaptability of the Nuragic Civilization, characterized by remarkable architectural achievements, a complex societal structure, and a rich cultural and spiritual life. This era laid many foundational aspects of Sardinian identity and serves as a powerful reminder of the island's historical significance within the broader Mediterranean world."
Ancient genetic admixture analysis compares the DNA profile of this individual (I10366) with present-day reference populations. These results show what percentage of the individual's genetic makeup resembles ancient populations from different geographic regions.
Modern genetic admixture analysis compares the DNA profile of this individual (I10366) with present-day reference populations. These results show what percentage of the individual's genetic makeup resembles modern populations from different geographic regions.
These results complement the ancient ancestry components shown in the previous section, offering a different perspective on the individual's genetic profile by comparing it with modern reference populations rather than prehistoric ancestral groups.
The G25 coordinates for the sample I10366 are as follows. You can analyze its admixture using G25 Studio.
I10366,0.097039,0.1509238,0.00053638,-0.05706614,0.03294284,-0.02678858,-0.0038612,0.00157882,0.03710862,0.04085466,0.00277942,0.00185564,-0.00125814,-0.01017868,-0.00541076,0.00819948,0.00139018,0.00091004,0.00209168,0.00309934,0.0055776,0.00643234,-0.00909798,-0.00966098,8.366E-05
The spread of steppe and Iranian-related ancestry in the islands of the western Mediterranean
Steppe-pastoralist-related ancestry reached Central Europe by at least 2500 BC, whereas Iranian farmer-related ancestry was present in Aegean Europe by at least 1900 BC. However, the spread of these ancestries into the western Mediterranean, where they have contributed to many populations that live today, remains poorly understood. Here, we generated genome-wide ancient-DNA data from the Balearic Islands, Sicily and Sardinia, increasing the number of individuals with reported data from 5 to 66. The oldest individual from the Balearic Islands (~2400 BC) carried ancestry from steppe pastoralists that probably derived from west-to-east migration from Iberia, although two later Balearic individuals had less ancestry from steppe pastoralists. In Sicily, steppe pastoralist ancestry arrived by ~2200 BC, in part from Iberia; Iranian-related ancestry arrived by the mid-second millennium BC, contemporary to its previously documented spread to the Aegean; and there was large-scale population replacement after the Bronze Age. In Sardinia, nearly all ancestry derived from the island's early farmers until the first millennium BC, with the exception of an outlier from the third millennium BC, who had primarily North African ancestry and who-along with an approximately contemporary Iberian-documents widespread Africa-to-Europe gene flow in the Chalcolithic. Major immigration into Sardinia began in the first millennium BC and, at present, no more than 56-62% of Sardinian ancestry is from its first farmers. This value is lower than previous estimates, highlighting that Sardinia, similar to every other region in Europe, has been a stage for major movement and mixtures of people.