A woman buried in Hungary in the Late Bronze Age era
The Late Bronze Age in Hungary, encompassing approximately 1300 to 800 BCE, is recognized for being a significant period marked by the Urnfield Culture. This era is characterized by several distinguishing cultural, economic, and societal features deeply intertwined with the broader developments across Central Europe at the time. Below is an in-depth exploration of this culture and era.
Geographic Setting
Territory: The Urnfield Culture in Hungary was part of a more extensive cultural complex that spread across Central and Eastern Europe. In Hungary, this culture was predominant in the Upper Danube River Basin, which provided fertile land for agriculture and a corridor for trade and movement.
Cultural Characteristics
Burial Practices: The Urnfield Culture is primarily characterized by its unique burial practices, where cremated remains were interred in urns – hence the name 'Urnfield'. These urns were placed in cemeteries, which often contained hundreds of burials. This shift from inhumation to cremation marks a significant departure from earlier burial traditions. The use of urns sometimes adorned with intricate patterns or motifs reflects a spiritual or ritualistic sophistication, hinting at beliefs about the afterlife.
Material Culture: Artifacts from this period include a variety of pottery that was often highly decorated with geometric designs. Metalwork, especially in bronze, was advanced, with finds including tools, weapons, and ornaments like fibulae, pins, and decorative inlays. Bronze swords, axes, and spearheads were particularly notable, indicating the importance of warfare or status in society.
Architecture and Settlements: Settlements of the Urnfield Culture were typically fortified, often situated on hills or other defensible locations, signaling the potential for conflict or social stratification. These communities relied on both agriculture and animal husbandry, with evidence of crop production including barley, wheat, and millet and the raising of cattle, pigs, and sheep.
Social Structure
Society: The Urnfield Culture likely had a hierarchy, though it was not as rigidly structured as later Iron Age societies. The wealth of burial goods and the complexity of the settlements suggest a degree of social differentiation. Leaders or elites might have emerged due to their control over resources or their roles as warriors or religious figures.
Trade and Economy: The location within the Danube River Basin facilitated trade, both within the region and with distant cultures. The exchange likely included raw materials such as tin and copper necessary for bronze production and various finished goods, promoting economic complexity and cultural exchange.
Technological and Economic Developments
Metalworking: The period saw significant advancements in metallurgy, notably in the production and distribution of bronze items. Workshops would have been centers of technological innovation, critical for the local economy and trade networks.
Agriculture: Agricultural practices became more sophisticated with the use of tools like bronze sickles, which increased efficiency in farming. The agricultural surplus might have supported larger populations, leading to the growth of settlements and increased social stratification.
Artistic and Intellectual Life
Art and Symbolism: The decorative motifs found on pottery and metal goods indicate a rich symbolic culture. These designs may have conveyed identity, social status, or spiritual beliefs.
Religion and Spirituality: While specific details about religious beliefs are scant, the care taken in burial practices suggests a well-developed spiritual life. The reverence shown to the cremated dead indicates beliefs in an afterlife or the significance of ancestors.
Conclusion
The Late Bronze Age in Hungary, characterized by the Urnfield Culture, was a period of significant transformation and development. It laid critical groundwork for subsequent cultural and technological advancements during the Iron Age. This era is a testament to the adaptability and innovation of ancient communities in response to shifting environmental and social contexts. Through their advancements in metallurgy, agriculture, and social organization, the people of the Urnfield Culture left a lasting legacy in the cultural tapestry of Central Europe.
A minimally destructive protocol for DNA extraction from ancient teeth
Ancient DNA sampling methods-although optimized for efficient DNA extraction-are destructive, relying on drilling or cutting and powdering (parts of) bones and teeth. As the field of ancient DNA has grown, so have concerns about the impact of destructive sampling of the skeletal remains from which ancient DNA is obtained. Due to a particularly high concentration of endogenous DNA, the cementum of tooth roots is often targeted for ancient DNA sampling, but destructive sampling methods of the cementum often result in the loss of at least one entire root. Here, we present a minimally destructive method for extracting ancient DNA from dental cementum present on the surface of tooth roots. This method does not require destructive drilling or grinding, and, following extraction, the tooth remains safe to handle and suitable for most morphological studies, as well as other biochemical studies, such as radiocarbon dating. We extracted and sequenced ancient DNA from 30 teeth (and nine corresponding petrous bones) using this minimally destructive extraction method in addition to a typical tooth sampling method. We find that the minimally destructive method can provide ancient DNA that is of comparable quality to extracts produced from teeth that have undergone destructive sampling processes. Further, we find that a rigorous cleaning of the tooth surface combining diluted bleach and UV light irradiation seems sufficient to minimize external contaminants usually removed through the physical removal of a superficial layer when sampling through regular powdering methods.