A woman buried in Hungary in the Late Bronze Age to Early Iron Age era
The transition from the Late Bronze Age to the Early Iron Age in Hungary is characterized by the Urnfield culture, which flourished approximately between 1300 BCE and 800 BCE. This period marks a significant transformation in the lifestyle, social structure, and technological advancements of the people inhabiting the Carpathian Basin, including present-day Hungary. The Urnfield culture is named after its distinctive funerary practice of cremating the dead and burying their ashes in urns, often clustered together in large cemeteries.
Geography and Environment
The Carpathian Basin, encompassing much of what is today Hungary, provided a rich and varied landscape during this period. This region offered fertile plains, river systems such as the Danube and its tributaries, and the protective shelter of surrounding mountain ranges. Such geographical advantages facilitated agriculture, trade, and communication, fostering the growth of prosperous communities.
Economy and Subsistence
The economy during this era was primarily based on agriculture, with communities cultivating crops like wheat, barley, millet, and legumes. Animal husbandry was also significant, with cattle, pigs, sheep, and goats being raised. Advances in farming techniques, possibly including the use of iron tools towards the end of this period, contributed to increased agricultural productivity.
Trade played a critical role in the economy, as the Carpathian Basin was strategically located at the crossroads of several trade routes. This facilitated the exchange of goods such as raw materials (bronze, tin, and copper), finished products, and cultural influences with neighboring regions.
Social Structure and Settlements
The Urnfield culture saw the development of more complex social hierarchies. Evidence suggests a stratified society with an emerging elite class, possibly warriors or chieftain leaders, as indicated by the richer grave goods found in some burials.
Settlements during this time were often situated in defensible locations, such as hilltops or near riverbanks. These communities ranged from small villages to larger, fortified settlements. The architectural style included wooden longhouses, sometimes accompanied by defensive structures like ditches or palisades.
Art and Craftsmanship
The Late Bronze Age to Early Iron Age was marked by significant advancements in metallurgy, transitioning from bronze to the early use of iron. This period produced a variety of metalwork including weapons (swords, axes), tools, and ornamentation (fibulae, bracelets) which were often richly decorated, indicating a high level of craftsmanship.
Ceramics from the Urnfield culture are distinctive, with the use of the potter's wheel becoming more widespread. Pottery styles varied, with designs ranging from simple ware to more elaborate, decorated pieces. The urns used for funerary practices were often simple but could be adorned with intricate motifs.
Religion and Funerary Practices
The Urnfield culture is especially noted for its burial customs. Cremation was the predominant practice, with the ashes of the deceased placed in ceramic urns. These urns were commonly buried in cemeteries that could contain hundreds of individual burials, arranged in rows or clusters. Grave goods varied, reflecting the social status or occupation of the deceased.
Religious beliefs likely centered around a pantheon of deities, perhaps associated with natural phenomena or ancestral worship, although specific details are sparse. The funerary practices and burial goods suggest a belief in an afterlife where such items might be required.
Cultural Interactions
Cultural contacts between the communities of the Carpathian Basin and their neighbors were vibrant. This period saw influences from and interactions with other contemporary cultures, such as the Tumulus and Hallstatt cultures to the west, and various Eastern European groups. These interactions are evidenced by similarities in burial customs, pottery styles, and metalworking techniques.
Conclusion
The Late Bronze Age to Early Iron Age in Hungary marks a dynamic era of cultural, technological, and social advancements. The Urnfield culture exemplifies the movement towards more organized societies, with developments in agriculture, trade, metallurgy, and religious practices. These characteristics laid critical foundations that would influence the subsequent Iron Age cultures in the region.
A minimally destructive protocol for DNA extraction from ancient teeth
Ancient DNA sampling methods-although optimized for efficient DNA extraction-are destructive, relying on drilling or cutting and powdering (parts of) bones and teeth. As the field of ancient DNA has grown, so have concerns about the impact of destructive sampling of the skeletal remains from which ancient DNA is obtained. Due to a particularly high concentration of endogenous DNA, the cementum of tooth roots is often targeted for ancient DNA sampling, but destructive sampling methods of the cementum often result in the loss of at least one entire root. Here, we present a minimally destructive method for extracting ancient DNA from dental cementum present on the surface of tooth roots. This method does not require destructive drilling or grinding, and, following extraction, the tooth remains safe to handle and suitable for most morphological studies, as well as other biochemical studies, such as radiocarbon dating. We extracted and sequenced ancient DNA from 30 teeth (and nine corresponding petrous bones) using this minimally destructive extraction method in addition to a typical tooth sampling method. We find that the minimally destructive method can provide ancient DNA that is of comparable quality to extracts produced from teeth that have undergone destructive sampling processes. Further, we find that a rigorous cleaning of the tooth surface combining diluted bleach and UV light irradiation seems sufficient to minimize external contaminants usually removed through the physical removal of a superficial layer when sampling through regular powdering methods.