A man buried in Romania in the Copper Age era
The Bodrogkeresztur culture, thriving during the Chalcolithic period, roughly between 4500 and 4000 BCE, was one of the significant prehistoric cultures in Central and Eastern Europe. It is predominantly known from its archaeological sites in present-day Hungary, Slovakia, and Romania. This culture is named after the site in Bodrogkeresztúr in northeastern Hungary, where its characteristics were first recognized.
Geographical Extent
The Bodrogkeresztur culture was concentrated in the Carpathian Basin, a crucial crossroad for different cultures due to its fertile plains and strategic location. This area allowed the people of the Bodrogkeresztur culture to engage in extensive trade networks, which facilitated cultural exchanges and the diffusion of technological innovations.
Subsistence Economy
The economy of the Bodrogkeresztur culture was primarily based on agriculture and animal husbandry. The rich, alluvial plains of the Danube and Tisza rivers provided ideal conditions for cultivating crops like wheat, barley, and millet. Domesticated animals, such as cattle, pigs, sheep, and goats, formed an essential component of their subsistence economy, providing meat, milk, and wool.
Material Culture
The Bodrogkeresztur culture is particularly noted for its distinctive pottery. The ceramics were often decorated with incised and impressed motifs, featuring geometric shapes and intricate patterns. Pottery shapes included bowls, vases, and jugs, which were often polished to a fine finish. The decoration styles reflect both local traditions and influences from neighboring cultures, indicating a high level of interaction.
Stone tools from this period show a refined level of craftsmanship. Flint and obsidian were the primary raw materials used for making blades and other implements, demonstrating advanced techniques in knapping and tool production.
Social Structure and Settlements
Settlements of the Bodrogkeresztur culture were typically situated on elevated land to avoid floods, with structures suggesting a degree of permanence. The presence of large, multi-roomed houses indicates a complex social organization, potentially with defined community leadership or hierarchical systems.
Burial practices within this culture give hints of social stratification. Graves often contained rich grave goods, including jewelry made of copper and gold, as well as decorative items and tools, indicating varying levels of wealth and status. The orientation and position of the bodies also suggest ritual and symbolic elements attached to their burial customs.
Technological Skills
The Bodrogkeresztur culture is recognized for its early use of copper, a hallmark of the Chalcolithic era. Metalworking technology was developed enough to produce a variety of tools and ornamental objects. This indicates they had knowledge of ore mining and metallurgy, which were crucial for advancements in technology and economic development.
Trade and Interactions
The Bodrogkeresztur culture participated in broader European trade networks, exchanging goods such as raw materials and finished products. The distribution of obsidian, sourced from the Zemplén Mountains, suggests extensive trade routes. This exchange brought in items and influences from as far as the Balkans and the Aegean, facilitating cultural and technological diffusion.
Decline and Legacy
The culture eventually transitioned into later local cultures, influenced by emerging Bronze Age traditions. The Bodrogkeresztur culture represents a critical stage in the evolution of complex societies in Europe, as it laid much of the groundwork for subsequent cultural developments in the Carpathian Basin.
In conclusion, the Bodrogkeresztur culture of Chalcolithic Europe stands out for its adaptive economy, sophisticated material culture, and its role in the early metallurgical revolution. Its contributions to prehistoric European culture are visible in the enduring legacy found in the archaeological record and subsequent cultural transformations.
Ancient genetic admixture analysis compares the DNA profile of this individual (I11902) with present-day reference populations. These results show what percentage of the individual's genetic makeup resembles ancient populations from different geographic regions.
Modern genetic admixture analysis compares the DNA profile of this individual (I11902) with present-day reference populations. These results show what percentage of the individual's genetic makeup resembles modern populations from different geographic regions.
These results complement the ancient ancestry components shown in the previous section, offering a different perspective on the individual's genetic profile by comparing it with modern reference populations rather than prehistoric ancestral groups.
The G25 coordinates for the sample I11902 are as follows. You can analyze its admixture using G25 Studio.
I11902,0.10948806,0.15914748,0.01111534,-0.0555525,0.04812962,-0.02698424,-0.0032245,0.00393696,0.04135728,0.06177832,-0.00139106,0.00971918,-0.01606926,-0.01202704,-0.0107296,0.00673106,0.00858156,0.00059442,0.00119128,-0.0012878,0.0022417,0.0064317,-0.01245794,-0.01732324,0.00290991
A minimally destructive protocol for DNA extraction from ancient teeth
Ancient DNA sampling methods-although optimized for efficient DNA extraction-are destructive, relying on drilling or cutting and powdering (parts of) bones and teeth. As the field of ancient DNA has grown, so have concerns about the impact of destructive sampling of the skeletal remains from which ancient DNA is obtained. Due to a particularly high concentration of endogenous DNA, the cementum of tooth roots is often targeted for ancient DNA sampling, but destructive sampling methods of the cementum often result in the loss of at least one entire root. Here, we present a minimally destructive method for extracting ancient DNA from dental cementum present on the surface of tooth roots. This method does not require destructive drilling or grinding, and, following extraction, the tooth remains safe to handle and suitable for most morphological studies, as well as other biochemical studies, such as radiocarbon dating. We extracted and sequenced ancient DNA from 30 teeth (and nine corresponding petrous bones) using this minimally destructive extraction method in addition to a typical tooth sampling method. We find that the minimally destructive method can provide ancient DNA that is of comparable quality to extracts produced from teeth that have undergone destructive sampling processes. Further, we find that a rigorous cleaning of the tooth surface combining diluted bleach and UV light irradiation seems sufficient to minimize external contaminants usually removed through the physical removal of a superficial layer when sampling through regular powdering methods.