A man buried in Russia in the Late Neolithic era

The Eneolithic period, also known as the Chalcolithic or Copper Age, marks a transitional era between the late Neolithic and the Early Bronze Age, characterized by the first use of metal—in the form of copper—alongside traditional stone tools. In the context of the Caucasus region of Russia, this era offers intriguing insights into the development of early societies, their cultural practices, and their interactions with neighboring regions during a period overlapping with the hypothesized homeland of the Proto-Indo-European (PIE) language speakers.

Geographic Context and Cultural Setting

The Caucasus, a region that bridges Europe and Asia, is known for its diverse landscapes, from the expansive steppes to mountainous areas. Its location made it a significant crossroads for human migrations and cultural exchanges. During the Eneolithic period, this area became a melting pot of influences that contributed to its rich archaeological record.

Archaeological Cultures

The Maikop Culture

One of the most well-known Eneolithic cultures in the Caucasus is the Maikop culture, dating from approximately 3700 to 3000 BCE. Located primarily in the northwestern Caucasus, the Maikop culture is identified through its distinctive burial mounds (kurgans), which have yielded a wealth of artifacts, including finely crafted metal items, ceramics, and elaborate jewelry. The culture's metallurgical advancements are of particular significance, as they point to early developments in metalworking.

The Kura-Araxes Culture

Another prominent culture that partly overlaps with the Eneolithic period is the Kura-Araxes culture, which extended from the southern Caucasus into parts of the north. This culture is noted for its distinctive red-black pottery and its spread across a vast geographic area, highlighting its role in extensive trade networks.

Economic and Social Structure

During the Eneolithic period, societies in the Caucasus began transitioning from purely agrarian economies to more complex socio-economic structures. The introduction of copper metallurgy suggests increased specialization and trade, as raw materials and finished goods circulated through extensive networks. These interactions likely facilitated cultural exchanges, contributing to the development of Proto-Indo-European linguistic and cultural traits.

The social structure of these societies was likely hierarchical, as evidenced by the kurgan burials, which often contain high-status individuals accompanied by an array of grave goods. Such burials imply the existence of social elites and possibly chiefdoms, indicating an early form of social stratification.

Linguistic Implications and Proto-Indo-European Connections

The Eneolithic Caucasus might have been part of the Proto-Indo-European homeland, influencing and incorporating linguistic elements that would spread through the area and beyond. The interactions facilitated by trade and migration during this period could have contributed to the linguistic diversification and spread of PIE languages.

Religious and Cultural Practices

Religious beliefs during this period likely revolved around nature and ancestor worship, as suggested by the burial practices and the types of artifacts found in kurgans. The emphasis on prestigious burials indicates a belief in an afterlife or the veneration of significant individuals, which might have laid a cultural foundation for subsequent Indo-European mythologies.

Conclusion

The Eneolithic period in the Caucasus region of Russia reflects a dynamic and transformative era characterized by early advancements in metallurgy, evolving social structures, and vibrant intercultural interactions. This period set the stage for the development of more complex societies and laid the groundwork for the emergence of the Bronze Age cultures that would further shape the region's historical trajectory. The legacy of these early cultures, seen in their economic, social, and possibly linguistic contributions, remains a subject of intense study and interest, offering valuable insights into the prehistoric roots of the Indo-European world.

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Ancient genetic admixture analysis compares the DNA profile of this individual (I2055) with present-day reference populations. These results show what percentage of the individual's genetic makeup resembles ancient populations from different geographic regions.

Modern genetic admixture analysis compares the DNA profile of this individual (I2055) with present-day reference populations. These results show what percentage of the individual's genetic makeup resembles modern populations from different geographic regions.

These results complement the ancient ancestry components shown in the previous section, offering a different perspective on the individual's genetic profile by comparing it with modern reference populations rather than prehistoric ancestral groups.

The G25 coordinates for the sample I2055 are as follows. You can analyze its admixture using G25 Studio.

Ancient human genome-wide data from a 3000-year interval in the Caucasus corresponds with eco-geographic regions