A man buried in Sweden in the Middle Neolithic era
The Funnel Beaker Culture, also known as the Trichterbecherkultur (TRB), is a significant Neolithic culture in Northern Europe, dating back to approximately 4000 to 2800 BCE. Its name is derived from the distinct shape of its pottery, which features a flared rim resembling a funnel. This culture extended across large parts of northern Europe, including southern Scandinavia, which encompasses modern-day Sweden, Denmark, and parts of northern Germany and Poland.
Geographic and Temporal Context
In Sweden, the Funnel Beaker Culture primarily emerged in the southernmost regions such as Skåne, Halland, and parts of Östergötland. This era marked a pivotal transition from hunter-gatherer societies to more settled agricultural communities. The geographical scope in Sweden is characterized by fertile lands, which were advantageous for the agrarian lifestyle adopted by the TRB communities.
Economic Activities
The economy of the Funnel Beaker Culture was predominantly agrarian, though it retained elements of hunter-gatherer practices. People engaged in farming, cultivating cereals like barley and wheat, and domesticating animals such as cattle, sheep, and pigs. This period is marked by an increase in sedentism due to the reliable food production resulting from agriculture.
Social Structure
The social structure of the Funnel Beaker Culture is inferred from archaeological findings, such as settlements and burial practices. Settlements were typically composed of longhouses, evidence of communal living. Social organization appeared to be relatively egalitarian, though some differentiation is suggested by variations in burial practices and grave goods.
Burial mounds and megalithic tombs, such as dolmens and passage graves, became prevalent during this era, pointing towards a complex ritualistic and spiritual life. These structures required coordinated communal effort, suggesting an organized society with shared beliefs and customs.
Technological and Cultural Developments
Pottery is one of the hallmark features of the Funnel Beaker Culture, with its distinctive funnel-shaped beakers. These ceramics were often decorated with intricate patterns, demonstrating a well-developed artistic sensibility.
Technological advancements were also seen in flint tool production, including axes, blades, and sickles. The use of polished stone tools represents a significant technological evolution from previous eras.
Trade and Interaction
The inhabitants of the Funnel Beaker Culture engaged in long-distance trade. Artefacts such as amber, which was plentiful in the Baltic region, were traded widely, suggesting that these communities were not isolated but part of a broader network of interactions across Neolithic Europe.
Environmental and Climatic Conditions
The Neolithic period in which the Funnel Beaker Culture thrived corresponds to the Holocene climatic optimum, a time characterized by relatively stable and warm conditions. This climate was conducive for agriculture and likely supported the expansion of TRB communities across the region.
Legacy and Influence
The Funnel Beaker Culture had a lasting influence on subsequent cultures in the region. The transition to agriculture and permanent structures set the foundation for future societal developments, influencing the cultural landscape of Scandinavia.
In summary, the Funnel Beaker Culture in Sweden was a transformative period characterized by the establishment of agricultural practices, complex social structures, and significant technological and cultural developments. It represents a key chapter in the prehistory of Northern Europe, laying the groundwork for the advanced civilizations that would later emerge in the region.
The genomic ancestry of the Scandinavian Battle Axe Culture people and their relation to the broader Corded Ware horizon
The Neolithic period is characterized by major cultural transformations and human migrations, with lasting effects across Europe. To understand the population dynamics in Neolithic Scandinavia and the Baltic Sea area, we investigate the genomes of individuals associated with the Battle Axe Culture (BAC), a Middle Neolithic complex in Scandinavia resembling the continental Corded Ware Culture (CWC). We sequenced 11 individuals (dated to 3330-1665 calibrated before common era (cal BCE)) from modern-day Sweden, Estonia, and Poland to 0.26-3.24× coverage. Three of the individuals were from CWC contexts and two from the central-Swedish BAC burial 'Bergsgraven'. By analysing these genomes together with the previously published data, we show that the BAC represents a group different from other Neolithic populations in Scandinavia, revealing stratification among cultural groups. Similar to continental CWC, the BAC-associated individuals display ancestry from the Pontic-Caspian steppe herders, as well as smaller components originating from hunter-gatherers and Early Neolithic farmers. Thus, the steppe ancestry seen in these Scandinavian BAC individuals can be explained only by migration into Scandinavia. Furthermore, we highlight the reuse of megalithic tombs of the earlier Funnel Beaker Culture (FBC) by people related to BAC. The BAC groups likely mixed with resident middle Neolithic farmers (e.g. FBC) without substantial contributions from Neolithic foragers.