A woman buried in United Kingdom in the Iron Age era
The Iron Age in England, which began around 800 BCE and lasted until the Roman invasion in 43 CE, is a period defined by the use of iron for tools and weapons, and it marks a significant cultural and technological evolution from the preceding Bronze Age. This era is often associated with the Celts, who were a collection of tribes with shared cultural traits spread across Western Europe. Iron Age England is part of a larger tapestry of Celtic culture known for its intricate art, fierce warfare, and complex societal structures.
Geography and Settlement: During the Iron Age, the landscape of what is now modern England was a patchwork of dense woodlands, rolling hills, and open fields. This environment influenced settlement patterns, with communities typically located near rivers or on hilltops. Hillforts were a characteristic feature of this period, serving as tribal centers, refuges, and symbols of power. Prominent examples include Maiden Castle in Dorset and Danebury in Hampshire.
Society and Culture: The social structure of Iron Age England was tribal and hierarchical. At the top were chieftains or kings who controlled tribes made up of family groups led by local chiefs. Society was organized around kinship and clans, with each family unit having its own duties and responsibilities. Druidism played an essential role in the spiritual and daily lives of the Celts, with druids acting as priests, judges, and scholars.
Celtic culture in England was richly expressive, especially evident in their art and mythology. The La Tène style, characterized by intricate patterns and curved motifs, dominated artistic expression in metalwork, pottery, and jewelry. This style often depicted natural forms—spirals, leaves, and animal figures—reflecting the Celts' close relationship with nature.
Economy and Technology: The economy was primarily agrarian, with communities practicing mixed farming. They cultivated cereals like wheat and barley and raised livestock, including cattle, sheep, and pigs. This period also saw advances in agricultural techniques, such as the introduction of the rotational system of farming and the use of iron-tipped plows, which improved productivity.
Ironworking was the defining technological advancement of this era. The ability to smelt and forge iron revolutionized agriculture, warfare, and daily life. Iron tools and weapons were stronger and more durable than their bronze counterparts. The widespread use of iron allowed for more efficient farming implements, leading to increased agricultural production, and it changed warfare significantly, with tribes employing iron swords, spears, and chariots in battles.
Trade and Interaction: Trade flourished during the Iron Age, with evidence of extensive trade networks that reached across the British Isles and into continental Europe. Goods such as metals, salt, textiles, and pottery were exchanged. The construction of trackways and roads facilitated trade and communication within and between tribes.
Warfare: The Iron Age was a time of tribal warfare, with conflicts often arising over territory or resources. Celtic warriors were known for their fierce and fearless nature, often fighting naked except for painted bodies and helmets. Chariot warfare was an iconic element of their military tactics. Fortifications, like hillforts, served both as defensive strongholds and status symbols for powerful tribes.
Legacy: The legacy of Iron Age England is profound. The period laid the foundations for the eventual Roman conquest and transformation of British society. The Celts’ cultural influence persisted long after their societal changes, with their mythology, art, and language shaping the historical and cultural landscape of Britain.
The Iron Age in England represents a complex and dynamic period of history characterized by innovative technology, vibrant culture, and social development. Understanding this era offers valuable insights into the ancestors of the British Isles and the early histories that shape modern England.
Ancient genetic admixture analysis compares the DNA profile of this individual (M1489) with present-day reference populations. These results show what percentage of the individual's genetic makeup resembles ancient populations from different geographic regions.
Modern genetic admixture analysis compares the DNA profile of this individual (M1489) with present-day reference populations. These results show what percentage of the individual's genetic makeup resembles modern populations from different geographic regions.
These results complement the ancient ancestry components shown in the previous section, offering a different perspective on the individual's genetic profile by comparing it with modern reference populations rather than prehistoric ancestral groups.
The G25 coordinates for the sample M1489 are as follows. You can analyze its admixture using G25 Studio.
M1489,0.12166352,0.12568336,0.05674732,0.03844562,0.03563566,0.0136854,-0.00076034,-0.00506606,0.00461508,-0.00012128,-0.00768254,0.0077295,-0.0132636,-0.009828,0.02145338,-0.01126546,-0.01924024,0.0003118,0.00168048,-0.00172764,0.00720922,0.00020114,-0.0070384,0.01269036,-0.00455797
Genomic signals of migration and continuity in Britain before the Anglo-Saxons
The purported migrations that have formed the peoples of Britain have been the focus of generations of scholarly controversy. However, this has not benefited from direct analyses of ancient genomes. Here we report nine ancient genomes (∼ 1 ×) of individuals from northern Britain: seven from a Roman era York cemetery, bookended by earlier Iron-Age and later Anglo-Saxon burials. Six of the Roman genomes show affinity with modern British Celtic populations, particularly Welsh, but significantly diverge from populations from Yorkshire and other eastern English samples. They also show similarity with the earlier Iron-Age genome, suggesting population continuity, but differ from the later Anglo-Saxon genome. This pattern concords with profound impact of migrations in the Anglo-Saxon period. Strikingly, one Roman skeleton shows a clear signal of exogenous origin, with affinities pointing towards the Middle East, confirming the cosmopolitan character of the Empire, even at its northernmost fringes.