A woman buried in United Kingdom in the Middle Ages era
The early medieval period in England, often referred to as the Anglo-Saxon period, spans roughly from the 5th century to the Norman Conquest in 1066. This era is characterized by the migration of Germanic tribes—primarily the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes—into the British Isles following the decline of Roman rule. The cultural and political landscape of this time was complex and dynamic, as indigenous Celtic populations interacted with new settlers, setting the foundation for future English society.
Political Structure and Society
Kingdoms and Governance: The migration led to the establishment of several kingdoms, some of the most notable being Wessex, Mercia, Northumbria, Kent, and East Anglia. Each kingdom was ruled by a king, and political power was often fragmented, with frequent skirmishes and alliances. Kingship was an important institution, and rulers were seen as war leaders, lawgivers, and religious protectors. The concept of the Bretwalda, or \Britain-ruler," refers to a king who achieved some level of dominance over other kings.
Social Hierarchy: The society was hierarchical, comprised of several classes: the nobility (earls and thanes), freemen (ceorls), and serfs or slaves. Loyalty to one's lord was a central tenet, exemplifying the comitatus bond, where warriors pledged service in exchange for protection and land.
Villages and Economy: Villages were the heart of Saxon life, typically consisting of timber-framed houses clustered around a communal hall. The economy was primarily agrarian, with subsistence farming. However, there was also trade, both domestically and internationally, with evidence of goods such as textiles, pottery, and metalwork moving through the North Sea and connecting with Scandinavian and continental European markets.
Religion and Culture
Pagan Beliefs and Christianization: Initially, the Anglo-Saxons practiced a form of Germanic paganism, worshipping gods like Woden, Thunor (Thor), and Tiw. Practices included sacrifices and burials with grave goods. The arrival of missionaries, such as St. Augustine in 597, initiated the gradual conversion to Christianity. Monasteries became centers of learning, the arts, and manuscript production. Christianity profoundly influenced art, law, and literacy.
Language and Literature: Old English, a Germanic language, was the era’s vernacular. It is the root of modern English and was used in celebrated literary works such as "Beowulf," which reflects the culture’s heroic ideals and oral traditions. Other significant texts include "The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" and various religious writings and poetry, such as those by Caedmon and Cynewulf.
Art and Architecture
Art: Anglo-Saxon art evolved from intricate metalwork and jewelry to illuminated manuscripts and carved stonework. Designs were often intricate, featuring interlaced patterns and animal motifs, such as those seen in the Sutton Hoo burial treasures and the Lindisfarne Gospels.
Architecture: Early architecture was mostly wooden, but during the later Anglo-Saxon period, stone building became more common, especially in ecclesiastical contexts. Surviving examples include the simple, robust designs of churches built before the Norman Conquest.
Warfare and Defense
Invasions and Conflicts: The period was marked by frequent conflicts, both inter-kingdom disputes and defense against external threats. The Viking raids initiated in the late 8th century disrupted the peace and required organized defense strategies, leading to developments like the burh system—fortified towns to protect against Viking incursions—and the establishment of the Danelaw, areas ruled by Norse settlers.
Legacy
The Early Medieval Saxon period laid the foundation for the development of England as a unified kingdom. The legal and cultural aspects developed during this time significantly influenced later English developments. The synthesis of Pagan and Christian traditions created a unique cultural landscape, and the eventual unification under kings like Alfred the Great and Athelstan would pave the way for medieval England's emergence as a distinct entity. The artifacts, literature, and linguistic heritage of this era continue to impact modern English culture and historical scholarship."
Ancient genetic admixture analysis compares the DNA profile of this individual (I0161) with present-day reference populations. These results show what percentage of the individual's genetic makeup resembles ancient populations from different geographic regions.
Modern genetic admixture analysis compares the DNA profile of this individual (I0161) with present-day reference populations. These results show what percentage of the individual's genetic makeup resembles modern populations from different geographic regions.
These results complement the ancient ancestry components shown in the previous section, offering a different perspective on the individual's genetic profile by comparing it with modern reference populations rather than prehistoric ancestral groups.
The G25 coordinates for the sample I0161 are as follows. You can analyze its admixture using G25 Studio.
I0161,0.13371602,0.1264733,0.06046506,0.0506414,0.04103944,0.02545274,0.00365194,0.00582874,0.0077306,-0.00082422,-0.00561914,0.00694242,-0.00459408,-0.00949108,0.01907642,0.00260398,-0.01212826,0.00412208,-0.00110766,0.00128824,0.0051922,0.00192648,0.00250248,0.00971372,0.00185967
Iron Age and Anglo-Saxon genomes from East England reveal British migration history
British population history has been shaped by a series of immigrations, including the early Anglo-Saxon migrations after 400 CE. It remains an open question how these events affected the genetic composition of the current British population. Here, we present whole-genome sequences from 10 individuals excavated close to Cambridge in the East of England, ranging from the late Iron Age to the middle Anglo-Saxon period. By analysing shared rare variants with hundreds of modern samples from Britain and Europe, we estimate that on average the contemporary East English population derives 38% of its ancestry from Anglo-Saxon migrations. We gain further insight with a new method, rarecoal, which infers population history and identifies fine-scale genetic ancestry from rare variants. Using rarecoal we find that the Anglo-Saxon samples are closely related to modern Dutch and Danish populations, while the Iron Age samples share ancestors with multiple Northern European populations including Britain.